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137-718: The Bristol Belle (G-AVTL) was the name given to the first modern hot air balloon in Britain. The balloon was created from an idea developed by members of the Bristol Gliding Club in the UK . Following developments by Ed Yost in the United States, members of the Bristol Gliding Club decided to create their own hot air balloon. Bill Malpas (chairman of the project), Mark Westwood, Giles Bulmer of

274-541: A difference in atmospheric pressure exists, air moves from the higher to the lower pressure area, resulting in winds of various speeds. On a rotating planet, air will also be deflected by the Coriolis effect , except exactly on the equator. Globally, the two major driving factors of large-scale wind patterns (the atmospheric circulation ) are the differential heating between the equator and the poles (difference in absorption of solar energy leading to buoyancy forces ) and

411-402: A lifting gas . These balloons are commonly used for high performance records for hot air balloons. Solar balloons are hot air balloons that use just solar energy captured by an envelope. These envelopes are more specialized than for other hot air balloons, trying to maximize the amount of solar energy they collect. This can be accomplished by rotating the envelope during flight or by having

548-422: A Velcro-style vent typically have a second "maneuvering vent" built into the side (as opposed to the top) of the balloon. Another common type of top design is the "smart vent", which, rather than lowering a fabric disc into the envelope as in the "parachute" type, gathers the fabric together in the center of the opening. This system can theoretically be used for in-flight maneuvering, but is more commonly used only as

685-406: A balloon of 2,800 m (100,000 cu ft) heated to 99 °C (210 °F) would be 723.5 kg (1,595 lb). This is just enough to generate neutral buoyancy for the total system mass (not including the heated air trapped in the envelope, of course) stated in the previous section. Liftoff would require a slightly greater temperature, depending on the desired rate of climb. In reality,

822-771: A balloon, possibly the earliest hot air balloon flights in human history. To support this theory, in 1975 he designed and piloted the Nazca Prehistoric Balloon, claiming to have used only methods and materials available to the Pre-Inca Peruvians 1,000 years ago. The French brothers Joseph-Michel and Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier developed a hot-air balloon in Annonay , Ardèche , France, and demonstrated it publicly on September 19, 1783, making an unmanned flight lasting 10 minutes. After experimenting with unmanned balloons and flights with animals,

959-424: A combination of wind and cold temperatures, when winds exceed 40 kilometers per hour (25 mph), rendering their hair and wool coverings ineffective. Although penguins use both a layer of fat and feathers to help guard against coldness in both water and air, their flippers and feet are less immune to the cold. In the coldest climates such as Antarctica , emperor penguins use huddling behavior to survive

1096-566: A flap in the envelope that will release the air/gas inside. To help ensure the safety of pilot and passengers, a hot air balloon may carry several pieces of safety equipment. To relight the burner if the pilot light goes out and the optional piezo ignition fails, the pilot should have ready access to a means of backup ignition, such as a flint spark lighter. Many systems, especially those that carry passengers, have completely duplicate fuel and burner systems: two fuel tanks, connected to two separate hoses, which feed two distinct burners. This enables

1233-516: A gale, a storm, or a hurricane. Within the Beaufort scale, gale-force winds lie between 28 knots (52 km/h) and 55 knots (102 km/h) with preceding adjectives such as moderate, fresh, strong, and whole used to differentiate the wind's strength within the gale category. A storm has winds of 56 knots (104 km/h) to 63 knots (117 km/h). The terminology for tropical cyclones differs from one region to another globally. Most ocean basins use

1370-615: A hot air balloon, when Per Lindstrand (born in Sweden, but resident in the UK) and Richard Branson of the UK flew 7,671.91 km (4,767.10 mi) from Japan to Northern Canada. With a volume of 74,000 cubic meters (2.6 million cubic feet), the balloon envelope was the largest ever built for a hot air craft. Designed to fly in the trans-oceanic jet streams , the Pacific Flyer recorded

1507-586: A large potential as wind speeds are typically higher and more constant away from the coast. Wind energy the kinetic energy of the air, is proportional to the third power of wind velocity. Betz's law described the theoretical upper limit of what fraction of this energy wind turbines can extract, which is about 59%. Wind figures prominently in several popular sports, including recreational hang gliding , hot air ballooning , kite flying, snowkiting , kite landboarding , kite surfing , paragliding , sailing , and windsurfing . In gliding, wind gradients just above

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1644-457: A load tape as well, and sewn together with two rows of parallel stitching. Other methods include a flat lap seam, in which the two pieces of fabric are held together simply with two rows of parallel stitching, and a zigzag , where parallel zigzag stitching holds a double lap of fabric. The fabric (or at least part of it, the top 1/3, for example) may be coated with a sealer, such as silicone or polyurethane , to make it impermeable to air. It

1781-485: A mechanical sandblaster in a laboratory setting, scientists affiliated with the Agricultural Research Service studied the effects of windblown sand abrasion on cotton seedlings. The study showed that the seedlings responded to the damage created by the windblown sand abrasion by shifting energy from stem and root growth to the growth and repair of the damaged stems. After a period of four weeks,

1918-414: A number of attempts at a hot air balloon flight by other teams. One, built by teacher Mr. Turner and students at Bolton Technical School, succeeded with a tethered flight before breaking free unintentionally and taking its pilot some distance before the pilot escaped unhurt, but with the balloon draped over a power line. The committee of the air day prohibited any further balloon take offs that day. In 1967,

2055-483: A rapid-deflation device for use after landing, of particular value in high winds. Other designs, such as the "pop top" and "MultiVent" systems, have also attempted to address the need for rapid deflation on landing, but the parachute top remains popular as an all-around maneuvering and deflation system. Besides special shapes, possibly for marketing purposes, there are several variations on the traditional "inverted tear drop" shape. The simplest, often used by home builders,

2192-409: A rate-of-climb (vertical-speed) indicator known as a variometer , envelope (air) temperature, and ambient (air) temperature. A GPS receiver can be useful to indicate ground speed (traditional aircraft air-speed indicators would be useless) and direction. The combined mass of an average system can be calculated as follows: Increasing the air temperature inside the envelope makes it less dense than

2329-429: A round-the world time of 268 h 20 min. A hot air balloon for manned flight uses a single-layered, fabric gas bag (lifting "envelope"), with an opening at the bottom called the mouth or throat. Attached to the envelope is a basket, or gondola, for carrying the passengers. Mounted above the basket and centered in the mouth is the "burner", which injects a flame into the envelope, heating the air within. The heater or burner

2466-409: A safe landing in the case of a blockage somewhere in one system or if a system must be disabled because of a fuel leak. A fire extinguisher suitable for extinguishing propane fires is useful. Most balloons carry a 1 or 2 kg AB:E type fire extinguisher. A handling or drop line is mandatory safety equipment in many countries. This is a rope or webbing of 20–30 meters in length attached to

2603-715: A significant effect on the control of aircraft during take-off and landing, and was a significant cause of aircraft accidents involving large loss of life within the United States. Sound movement through the atmosphere is affected by wind shear, which can bend the wave front, causing sounds to be heard where they normally would not, or vice versa. Strong vertical wind shear within the troposphere also inhibits tropical cyclone development, but helps to organize individual thunderstorms into living longer life cycles that can then produce severe weather . The thermal wind concept explains how differences in wind speed with height are dependent on horizontal temperature differences, and explains

2740-404: A valve at one end to feed the burner and to refuel. They may have a fuel gauge and a pressure gauge . Common tank sizes are 38, 57 and 76 litres (10, 15 and 20 US gallons). They may be intended for upright or horizontal use and may be mounted inside or outside the basket. The pressure necessary to force the fuel through the line to the burner may be supplied by the vapor pressure of

2877-433: A variety of aeolian processes such as the formation of fertile soils, for example loess , and by erosion . Dust from large deserts can be moved great distances from its source region by the prevailing winds ; winds that are accelerated by rough topography and associated with dust outbreaks have been assigned regional names in various parts of the world because of their significant effects on those regions. Wind also affects

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3014-499: A wind barb to show both wind direction and speed. The wind barb shows the speed using "flags" on the end. Winds are depicted as blowing from the direction the barb is facing. Therefore, a northeast wind will be depicted with a line extending from the cloud circle to the northeast, with flags indicating wind speed on the northeast end of this line. Once plotted on a map, an analysis of isotachs (lines of equal wind speeds) can be accomplished. Isotachs are particularly useful in diagnosing

3151-868: Is a hemisphere on top of a truncated cone . More sophisticated designs attempt to minimize the circumferential stress on the fabric, with different degrees of success depending on whether they take fabric weight and varying air density into account. This shape may be referred to as "natural". Finally, some specialized balloons are designed to minimize aerodynamic drag (in the vertical direction) to improve flight performance in competitions. Hot air balloon baskets are commonly made of woven wicker or rattan . These materials have proven to be sufficiently light, strong, and durable for balloon flight. Such baskets are usually rectangular or triangular in shape. They vary in size from just big enough for two people to large enough to carry thirty. Larger baskets often have internal partitions for structural bracing and to compartmentalize

3288-528: Is a microscale meteorological phenomenon occurring over a very small distance, but it can be associated with mesoscale or synoptic scale weather features such as squall lines and cold fronts . It is commonly observed near microbursts and downbursts caused by thunderstorms , weather fronts, areas of locally higher low level winds referred to as low level jets, near mountains, radiation inversions that occur because of clear skies and calm winds, buildings, wind turbines , and sailboats . Wind shear has

3425-467: Is a difference in wind speed and direction over a relatively short distance in the Earth's atmosphere. Wind shear can be broken down into vertical and horizontal components, with horizontal wind shear seen across weather fronts and near the coast, and vertical shear typically near the surface, though also at higher levels in the atmosphere near upper level jets and frontal zones aloft. Wind shear itself

3562-477: Is about 2,800 m (99,000 cu ft), allowing to carry 3 to 5 people. The top of the balloon usually has a vent of some sort, enabling the pilot to release hot air to slow an ascent, start a descent, or increase the rate of descent, usually for landing. Some hot air balloons have turning vents , which are side vents that, when opened, cause the balloon to rotate. Such vents are particularly useful for balloons with rectangular baskets, to facilitate aligning

3699-451: Is an increase of the wind speed above a certain threshold, which lasts for a minute or more. To determine winds aloft, radiosondes determine wind speed by GPS , radio navigation , or radar tracking of the probe. Alternatively, movement of the parent weather balloon position can be tracked from the ground visually using theodolites . Remote sensing techniques for wind include SODAR , Doppler lidars and radars, which can measure

3836-427: Is exposed to the wind to determine the dynamic pressure, which is then used to compute the wind speed. Sustained wind speeds are reported globally at a 10-meter (33 ft) height and are averaged over a 10‑minute time frame. The United States reports winds over a 1‑minute average for tropical cyclones, and a 2‑minute average within weather observations. India typically reports winds over a 3‑minute average. Knowing

3973-443: Is fueled by propane , a liquefied gas stored in pressure vessels, similar to high-pressure forklift cylinders . Modern hot air balloons are usually made of materials such as ripstop nylon or dacron (a polyester ). During the manufacturing process, the material is cut into panels and sewn together, along with structural load tapes that carry the weight of the gondola or basket. The individual sections, which extend from

4110-477: Is generally the primary factor governing the direction of flight operations at an airport, and airfield runways are aligned to account for the common wind direction(s) of the local area. While taking off with a tailwind may be necessary under certain circumstances, a headwind is generally desirable. A tailwind increases takeoff distance required and decreases the climb gradient. The ancient Sinhalese of Anuradhapura and in other cities around Sri Lanka used

4247-599: Is insufficient rainfall to support vegetation. An example is the formation of sand dunes , on a beach or in a desert. Loess is a homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous, friable , slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-grained, silty , pale yellow or buff, windblown (Aeolian) sediment . It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces. Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas with loess are among

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4384-455: Is needed. The pilot actuates a burner by opening a propane valve, known as a blast valve . The valve may be spring-loaded, so that it closes automatically, or it may stay open until closed by the pilot. The burner has a pilot light to ignite the propane and air mixture. The pilot light may be lit by the pilot with an external device, such as a flint striker or a lighter , or with a built-in piezoelectric spark. Where more than one burner

4521-542: Is not the primary form of seed dispersal in plants, it provides dispersal for a large percentage of the biomass of land plants. Erosion can be the result of material movement by the wind. There are two main effects. First, wind causes small particles to be lifted and therefore moved to another region. This is called deflation. Second, these suspended particles may impact on solid objects causing erosion by abrasion (ecological succession). Wind erosion generally occurs in areas with little or no vegetation, often in areas where there

4658-463: Is often the degradation of this coating and the corresponding loss of impermeability that ends the effective life of an envelope, not weakening of the fabric itself. Heat, moisture, and mechanical wear-and-tear during set-up and pack-up are the primary causes of degradation. Once an envelope becomes too porous to fly, it may be retired and discarded or perhaps used as a "rag bag": cold-inflated and opened for children to run through. Products for recoating

4795-474: Is one of the more primitive means of dispersal. Wind dispersal can take on one of two primary forms: seeds can float on the breeze or alternatively, they can flutter to the ground. The classic examples of these dispersal mechanisms include dandelions ( Taraxacum spp., Asteraceae ), which have a feathery pappus attached to their seeds and can be dispersed long distances, and maples ( Acer (genus) spp., Sapindaceae ), which have winged seeds and flutter to

4932-480: Is possible for pilots to try to achieve basic directional control by changing altitude and catching different wind streams. Wind in the northern hemisphere tends to turn east due to coriolis effect as the altitude increases. The most effective way of landing a hot air balloon is to reduce the energy in the envelope, either by turning down the flame in Montgolfier and Hybrid balloons, or more directly by opening

5069-408: Is present, the pilot can use one or more at a time, depending on the desired heat output. Each burner has a metal coil of propane tubing the flame shoots through to preheat the incoming liquid propane. The burner unit may be suspended from the mouth of the envelope or supported rigidly over the basket. The burner unit may be mounted on a gimbal to enable the pilot to aim the flame and avoid overheating

5206-425: Is similar to the geostrophic wind but also includes centrifugal force (or centripetal acceleration ). Wind direction is usually expressed in terms of the direction from which it originates. For example, a northerly wind blows from the north to the south. Weather vanes pivot to indicate the direction of the wind. At airports, windsocks indicate wind direction, and can also be used to estimate wind speed by

5343-512: Is the movement of gases or charged particles from the Sun through space, while planetary wind is the outgassing of light chemical elements from a planet's atmosphere into space. The strongest observed winds on a planet in the Solar System occur on Neptune and Saturn . In human civilization, the concept of wind has been explored in mythology , influenced the events of history, expanded

5480-407: Is warmed by the sun more slowly because of water's greater specific heat compared to land. As the temperature of the surface of the land rises, the land heats the air above it by conduction. The warm air is less dense than the surrounding environment and so it rises. The cooler air above the sea, now with higher sea level pressure , flows inland into the lower pressure, creating a cooler breeze near

5617-649: The American Civil War and used as reconnaissance towers. The first military funded balloon in America was designed by Thaddeus Lowe on August 2, 1861, for the Union . His design utilized gas from municipal lines to inflate the balloon as he did not have access to a portable generator. Observation balloons during this time were all made using multicolored-silk, wicker baskets, and were vertically oriented and tear shaped. Hydrogen, or illumination gas became

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5754-538: The Ark Royal was steaming off the southern coast of the island on 29 November 1970. Hot air balloon A hot air balloon is a lighter-than-air aircraft consisting of a bag, called an envelope, which contains heated air. Suspended beneath is a gondola or wicker basket (in some long-distance or high-altitude balloons, a capsule), which carries passengers and a source of heat, in most cases an open flame caused by burning liquid propane . The heated air inside

5891-480: The Bristol Belle balloon was complete. Wing Commander Gerry Turnbull from RAF Weston-on-the-Green , an experienced gas-balloon pilot, was to teach the team how to fly. Space heating blowers known as Jetairs were used to inflate the balloon. The balloon initially failed after the first few attempts at inflation, splitting with three distinct tears. Westwood and Cameron set about working on correcting this in

6028-461: The Bulmer cider making family and Don Cameron were the four project creators. Three other members, Charles Meisl, a Czechoslovakian citizen, Tom Sage, a press photographer from London and Malcolm Brighton subsequently joined the group. Malcolm Brighton had built a number of balloons and became the main builder for the project. In the summer of 1966, the team went to Dunstable Air Day and saw

6165-500: The Doppler shift of electromagnetic radiation scattered or reflected off suspended aerosols or molecules , and radiometers and radars can be used to measure the surface roughness of the ocean from space or airplanes. Ocean roughness can be used to estimate wind velocity close to the sea surface over oceans. Geostationary satellite imagery can be used to estimate the winds at cloud top based upon how far clouds move from one image to

6302-574: The Gobi Desert , which combined with pollutants, spread large distances downwind, or eastward, into North America. There are local names for winds associated with sand and dust storms. The Calima carries dust on southeast winds into the Canary islands . The Harmattan carries dust during the winter into the Gulf of Guinea . The Sirocco brings dust from north Africa into southern Europe because of

6439-475: The Magnus effect , every sailing ship has a hull , rigging and at least one mast to hold up the sails that use the wind to power the ship. Ocean journeys by sailing ship can take many months, and a common hazard is becoming becalmed because of lack of wind, or being blown off course by severe storms or winds that do not allow progress in the desired direction. A severe storm could lead to shipwreck , and

6576-560: The North African Campaign of the World War II, "allied and German troops were several times forced to halt in mid-battle because of sandstorms caused by khamsin... Grains of sand whirled by the wind blinded the soldiers and created electrical disturbances that rendered compasses useless." There are many different forms of sailing ships, but they all have certain basic things in common. Except for rotor ships using

6713-793: The Shu Han kingdom, during the Three Kingdoms era (220–280 CE), used these airborne lanterns for military signaling. The Mongolian army studied Kongming lanterns from China and used them in the Battle of Legnica during the Mongol invasion of Poland in the 13th century. This is the first time ballooning was known in the western world. In the 18th century the Portuguese Jesuit priest Bartolomeu de Gusmão in colonial Brazil envisioned an aerial apparatus named Passarola , which

6850-400: The atmospheric boundary layer in the midlatitudes. The thermal wind is the difference in the geostrophic wind between two levels in the atmosphere. It exists only in an atmosphere with horizontal temperature gradients . The ageostrophic wind component is the difference between actual and geostrophic wind, which is responsible for air "filling up" cyclones over time. The gradient wind

6987-503: The gristmilling and sugarcane industries. Horizontal-axle windmills were later used extensively in Northwestern Europe to grind flour beginning in the 1180s, and many Dutch windmills still exist. Wind power is now one of the main sources of renewable energy , and its use is growing rapidly, driven by innovation and falling prices. Most of the installed capacity in wind power is onshore , but offshore wind power offers

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7124-468: The leeward or downwind side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air on the descending and generally warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is observed. Winds that flow over mountains down into lower elevations are known as downslope winds. These winds are warm and dry. In Europe downwind of the Alps , they are known as foehn . In Poland, an example is the halny wiatr. In Argentina,

7261-503: The logarithmic wind profile , can be utilized to derive vertical information. Temporal information is typically computed by solving the Navier-Stokes equations within numerical weather prediction models, generating global data for General Circulation Models or specific regional data. The calculation of wind fields is influenced by factors such as radiation differentials, Earth's rotation, and friction, among others. Solving

7398-501: The polar regions . The westerlies can be particularly strong, especially in the southern hemisphere, where there is less land in the middle latitudes to cause the flow pattern to amplify, which slows the winds down. The strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes are within a band known as the Roaring Forties , between 40 and 50 degrees latitude south of the equator. The Westerlies play an important role in carrying

7535-402: The rotation of the planet . Outside the tropics and aloft from frictional effects of the surface, the large-scale winds tend to approach geostrophic balance . Near the Earth's surface, friction causes the wind to be slower than it would be otherwise. Surface friction also causes winds to blow more inward into low-pressure areas. Winds defined by an equilibrium of physical forces are used in

7672-400: The windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, also known as upslope flow, resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on

7809-580: The African dust that reaches the United States affects Florida. Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened because of periods of drought in Africa. There is a large variability in the dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year. Dust events have been linked to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s. Similar dust plumes originate in

7946-453: The Caribbean into southeastern North America. When dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the ridge within the belt of trade winds moves over land, rainfall is suppressed and the sky changes from a blue to a white appearance, which leads to an increase in red sunsets. Its presence negatively impacts air quality by adding to the count of airborne particulates. Over 50% of

8083-458: The Earth's complex atmospheric system. Historically, the Beaufort wind force scale (created by Beaufort ) provides an empirical description of wind speed based on observed sea conditions. Originally it was a 13-level scale (0–12), but during the 1940s, the scale was expanded to 18 levels (0–17). There are general terms that differentiate winds of different average speeds such as a breeze,

8220-425: The Earth's deserts lie near the average latitude of the subtropical ridge, where descent reduces the relative humidity of the air mass. The strongest winds are in the mid-latitudes where cold polar air meets warm air from the tropics. The trade winds (also called trades) are the prevailing pattern of easterly surface winds found in the tropics towards the Earth's equator . The trade winds blow predominantly from

8357-502: The Egyptian desert 500 km (300 mi) south of Cairo. The two men exceeded distance, endurance, and time records, traveling 19 days, 21 hours, and 55 minutes. Steve Fossett , flying solo, exceeded the record for briefest time traveling around the world on 3 July 2002 on his sixth attempt, in 320 h 33 min. Fedor Konyukhov flew solo round the world on his first attempt in a hybrid hot air/helium balloon from 11 to 23 July 2016 for

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8494-669: The French used the balloon l'Entreprenant for observation. Modern hot air balloons, with an onboard heat source, were developed by Ed Yost and Jim Winker, beginning during the 1950s; their work resulted in his a first successful flight on October 22, 1960. The first modern hot air balloon to be made in the United Kingdom (UK) was the Bristol Belle , built in 1967. Presently, hot air balloons are used primarily for recreation. Hot air balloons are able to fly to extremely high altitudes. On November 26, 2005 Vijaypat Singhania set

8631-644: The Italian cardinal Michelangelo Conti , two members of the Portuguese Royal Academy of History, one Portuguese diplomat and one chronicler serving as witnesses. This event would bring some European attention to this event and this project. A later article dated on October 20, 1786, by the London Daily Universal Register would state that the inventor was able to raise himself by the use of his prototype. Also in 1709,

8768-563: The Navier-Stokes equations is a time-consuming numerical process, but machine learning techniques can help expedite computation time. Numerical weather prediction models have significantly advanced our understanding of atmospheric dynamics and have become indispensable tools in weather forecasting and climate research. By leveraging both spatial and temporal data, these models enable scientists to analyze and predict global and regional wind patterns, contributing to our comprehension of

8905-470: The Portuguese Jesuit wrote Manifesto summário para os que ignoram poderse navegar pelo elemento do ar ( Short Manifesto for those who are unaware that is possible to sail through the element air ); he also left designs for a manned air vessel. In the 1970s, balloonist Julian Nott hypothesized that the Nazca Lines geoglyphs ' creation two millennia ago could have been guided by Nazca leaders in

9042-614: The Prevailing Westerlies are the prevailing winds in the middle latitudes between 35 and 65 degrees latitude . These prevailing winds blow from the west to the east, and steer extratropical cyclones in this general manner. The winds are predominantly from the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere. They are strongest in the winter when

9179-588: The United States, and they can be as strong as other downslope winds and unusual compared to other foehn winds in that the relative humidity typically changes little due to the increased moisture in the source air mass. In California, downslope winds are funneled through mountain passes, which intensify their effect, and examples include the Santa Ana and sundowner winds. Wind speeds during downslope wind effect can exceed 160 kilometers per hour (99 mph). Wind shear, sometimes referred to as wind gradient ,

9316-551: The Westerlies, these prevailing winds blow from the east to the west, and are often weak and irregular. Because of the low sun angle, cold air builds up and subsides at the pole creating surface high-pressure areas, forcing an equatorward outflow of air; that outflow is deflected westward by the Coriolis effect. In coastal regions, sea breezes and land breezes can be important factors in a location's prevailing winds. The sea

9453-447: The air contained in the envelope is not all at the same temperature, as the accompanying thermal image shows, and so these calculations are based on averages. For typical atmospheric conditions (20 °C or 68 °F), a hot air balloon heated to 99 °C (210 °F) requires about 3.91 m of envelope volume to lift 1 kilogram (equivalently, 62.5 cu ft/lb). The precise amount of lift provided depends not only upon

9590-451: The airspeed to deal with the effect of the gradient. When landing, wind shear is also a hazard, particularly when the winds are strong. As the glider descends through the wind gradient on final approach to landing, airspeed decreases while sink rate increases, and there is insufficient time to accelerate prior to ground contact. The pilot must anticipate the wind gradient and use a higher approach speed to compensate for it. In arid climates,

9727-468: The angle of hang. Wind speed is measured by anemometers , most commonly using rotating cups or propellers. When a high measurement frequency is needed (such as in research applications), wind can be measured by the propagation speed of ultrasound signals or by the effect of ventilation on the resistance of a heated wire. Another type of anemometer uses pitot tubes that take advantage of the pressure differential between an inner tube and an outer tube that

9864-530: The average wind speed to determine the tropical cyclone's category. Below is a summary of the classifications used by Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers worldwide: The Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF Scale) rates the strength of tornadoes by using damage to estimate wind speed. It has six levels, from visible damage to complete destruction. It is used in the United States and in some other countries, including Canada and France, with small modifications. The station model plotted on surface weather maps uses

10001-410: The balloon after landing. An older, and presently less commonly used, style of top vent is called a " Velcro -style" vent. This too is a disk of fabric at the top of the balloon. However, rather than having a set of "vent lines" that can repeatedly open and close the vent, the vent is secured by "hook and loop" fasteners (such as Velcro) and is only opened at the end of the flight. Balloons equipped with

10138-433: The balloon basket with a quick-release connection at one end. In very calm winds the balloon pilot can throw the handling line from the balloon so that the ground crew can guide the balloon safely away from obstructions on the ground. For commercial passenger balloons, a pilot restraint harness is mandatory in some countries. This consists of a hip belt and a webbing line that together allow for some movement while preventing

10275-405: The balloon, though this means it is technically not a hot air balloon, though they did influence the design of hybrid balloons. The 1785 Rozière balloon , is the main type of hybrid balloon , named after its creator, Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier. It has a separate cell for a lighter-than-air gas (typically helium ), as well as a cone below for hot air (as is used in a hot air balloon) to heat

10412-400: The basket. A parachute vent is opened by pulling on the control line. Once the control line is released, the pressure of the remaining hot air pushes the vent fabric back into place. A parachute vent can be opened briefly while in flight to initiate a rapid descent. (Slower descents are initiated by allowing the air in the balloon to cool naturally.) The vent is pulled open completely to collapse

10549-470: The buoyancy of hot air provided by the burner and contained by the envelope. This style of balloon was developed by the Montgolfier brothers and had its first public demonstration on 4 June 1783 with an unmanned flight lasting 10 minutes, followed later that year with manned flights. Instead of using regular air it is also possible to use lighter than air gasses such as Helium or Hydrogen to lift

10686-554: The coast, such as the Sitka spruce and sea grape , are pruned back by wind and salt spray near the coastline. Wind can also cause plants damage through sand abrasion . Strong winds will pick up loose sand and topsoil and hurl it through the air at speeds ranging from 25 miles per hour (40 km/h) to 40 miles per hour (64 km/h). Such windblown sand causes extensive damage to plant seedlings because it ruptures plant cells, making them vulnerable to evaporation and drought. Using

10823-400: The coast. A background along-shore wind either strengthens or weakens the sea breeze, depending on its orientation with respect to the Coriolis force. At night, the land cools off more quickly than the ocean because of differences in their specific heat values. This temperature change causes the daytime sea breeze to dissipate. When the temperature onshore cools below the temperature offshore,

10960-400: The decomposition and analysis of wind profiles. They are useful for simplifying the atmospheric equations of motion and for making qualitative arguments about the horizontal and vertical distribution of horizontal winds. The geostrophic wind component is the result of the balance between Coriolis force and pressure gradient force. It flows parallel to isobars and approximates the flow above

11097-711: The density of the gases involved, and energy content or wind energy . In meteorology , winds are often referred to according to their strength, and the direction from which the wind is blowing. The convention for directions refer to where the wind comes from; therefore, a 'western' or 'westerly' wind blows from the west to the east, a 'northern' wind blows south, and so on. This is sometimes counter-intuitive. Short bursts of high speed wind are termed gusts . Strong winds of intermediate duration (around one minute) are termed squalls . Long-duration winds have various names associated with their average strength, such as breeze , gale , storm , and hurricane . In outer space , solar wind

11234-662: The design, and with the assistance of GQ Parachutes in Woking , had the ballon repaired and correctly manufactured to cope with the stresses. The first flight of the Bristol Belle took place on 9 July 1967 from RAF Weston-on-the-Green, and was covered by the Daily Telegraph and other media. The balloon took part in some famous flights including one from HMS Ark Royal , where it was piloted by Lt Terry Adams, accompanied by Lt Howard Draper both of 849 Squadron, B Flight . This early morning launch carried mail to Malta while

11371-518: The eight directions. Kamikaze is a Japanese word, usually translated as divine wind, believed to be a gift from the gods. The term is first known to have been used as the name of a pair or series of typhoons that are said to have saved Japan from two Mongol fleets under Kublai Khan that attacked Japan in 1274 and again in 1281. Protestant Wind is a name for the storm that deterred the Spanish Armada from an invasion of England in 1588 where

11508-577: The envelope colored black or another dark color. They were pioneered in the 1970s in Europe by Tracy Barnes, Dominic Michaelis, and in the US by Frederick Espoo and Paul Woessher. A Thermal airship , or blimp , became a reality in the 1960s. Thermal airships were the first steerable air buoyant vehicles. They utilized tail fins and a rudder and contained strictly hot air rather than a mix with hydrogen or helium. Observation balloons were deployed as early as

11645-520: The envelope fabric. A burner may have a secondary propane valve that releases propane more slowly and thereby generates a different sound. This is called a whisper burner and is used for flight over livestock to lessen the chance of spooking them. It also generates a more yellow flame and is used for night glows because it lights up the inside of the envelope better than the primary valve. Propane fuel tanks are usually cylindrical pressure vessels made from aluminium , stainless steel , or titanium with

11782-406: The envelope makes it buoyant , since it has a lower density than the colder air outside the envelope. As with all aircraft , hot air balloons cannot fly beyond the atmosphere . The envelope does not have to be sealed at the bottom, since the air inside the envelope is at about the same pressure as the surrounding air. In modern sport balloons the envelope is generally made from nylon fabric, and

11919-514: The envelope. For most envelopes made of nylon fabric, the maximal internal temperature is limited to approximately 120 °C (250 °F). The melting point of nylon is significantly greater than this maximal operating temperature —about 230 °C (450 °F)—but higher temperatures cause the strength of the nylon fabric to degrade more quickly over time. With a maximal operating temperature of 120 °C (250 °F), balloon envelopes can generally be flown for between 400 and 500 hours before

12056-461: The existence of the jet stream . As a natural force, the wind was often personified as one or more wind gods or as an expression of the supernatural in many cultures. Vayu is the Vedic and Hindu God of Wind. The Greek wind gods include Boreas , Notus , Eurus , and Zephyrus . Aeolus , in varying interpretations the ruler or keeper of the four winds, has also been described as Astraeus ,

12193-547: The fabric are becoming available commercially. A range of envelope sizes is available. The smallest, one-person, basket-less balloons (called " Hoppers " or "Cloudhoppers") have as little as 600 m (21,000 cu ft) of envelope volume; for a perfect sphere the radius would be around 5 m (16 ft). At the other end of the scale, balloons used by commercial sightseeing operations may be able to carry well over two dozen people, with envelope volumes of up to 17,000 m (600,000 cu ft). The most-used size

12330-417: The fabric needs to be replaced. Many balloon pilots operate their envelopes at temperatures significantly less than the maximum to extend envelope-fabric life. The lift generated by 2,800 m (100,000 cu ft) of dry air heated to various temperatures may be calculated as follows: The density of air at 20 °C (68 °F) is about 1.2 kg/m (0.075 lb/cu ft). The total lift for

12467-479: The fastest ground speed for a manned balloon at 394 km/h (245 mph). The longest duration record was set by Swiss psychiatrist Bertrand Piccard ( Auguste Piccard 's grandson) and Briton Brian Jones, flying in the Breitling Orbiter 3. It was the first nonstop trip around the world by balloon. The balloon left Château-d'Oex, Switzerland, on March 1, 1999, and landed at 1:02 a.m. on March 21 in

12604-531: The first balloon flight with humans aboard, a tethered flight, performed on or around October 15, 1783, by Jean-Francois Pilatre de Rozier, who made at least one tethered flight from the yard of the Reveillon workshop in the Faubourg Saint-Antoine . Later that same day, Pilatre de Rozier became the second human to ascend into the air, reaching an altitude of 26 m (85 ft), the length of

12741-630: The flatter countryside. These conditions are dangerous to ascending and descending airplanes . Cool winds accelerating through mountain gaps have been given regional names. In Central America, examples include the Papagayo wind , the Panama wind, and the Tehuano wind . In Europe, similar winds are known as the Bora , Tramontane , and Mistral . When these winds blow over open waters, they increase mixing of

12878-512: The fully enclosed gondolas used for around-the-world attempts and baskets that consist of little more than a seat for the pilot and perhaps one passenger. The burner unit gasifies liquid propane , mixes it with air, ignites the mixture, and directs the flame and exhaust into the mouth of the envelope. Burners vary in power output; each will generally produce 2 to 3 MW of heat (7 to 10 million BTUs per hour), with double, triple, or quadruple burner configurations installed where more power

13015-685: The god of dusk who fathered the four winds with Eos , goddess of dawn. The ancient Greeks also observed the seasonal change of the winds, as evidenced by the Tower of the Winds in Athens . Venti are the Roman gods of the winds. Fūjin is the Japanese wind god and is one of the eldest Shinto gods. According to legend, he was present at the creation of the world and first let the winds out of his bag to clear

13152-465: The ground. An important constraint on wind dispersal is the need for abundant seed production to maximize the likelihood of a seed landing in a site suitable for germination . There are also strong evolutionary constraints on this dispersal mechanism. For instance, species in the Asteraceae on islands tended to have reduced dispersal capabilities (i.e., larger seed mass and smaller pappus) relative to

13289-597: The growth of the seedling once again became uniform throughout the plant, as it was before the windblown sand abrasion occurred. Besides plant gametes (seeds) wind also helps plants' enemies: Spores and other propagules of plant pathogens are even lighter and able to travel long distances. A few plant diseases are known to have been known to travel over marginal seas and even entire oceans. Humans are unable to prevent or even slow down wind dispersal of plant pathogens, requiring prediction and amelioration instead. Cattle and sheep are prone to wind chill caused by

13426-547: The helium at night. Hydrogen gas was used in the very early stages of development but was quickly abandoned due to the danger of introducing an open flame near the gas, for example when Rozier attempted to cross the English Channel with his prototype, the fire used to heat the air ignited the Hydrogen and killed both him and his copilot thirty minutes after takeoff. As such, all modern hybrid balloons now use helium as

13563-456: The inlet of the balloon (closest to the burner flame) is made from a fire-resistant material such as Nomex . Modern balloons have been made in many shapes, such as rocket ships and the shapes of various commercial products, though the traditional shape is used for most non-commercial and many commercial applications. The hot air balloon is the first successful human-carrying flight technology. The first untethered manned hot air balloon flight in

13700-652: The internal temperature mentioned above, but the external temperature, altitude above sea level, and humidity of the air surrounding. On a warm day, a balloon cannot lift as much as on a cool day, because the temperature required for launch will exceed the maximum sustainable for nylon envelope fabric. Also, in the lower atmosphere, the lift provided by a hot air balloon decreases about 3% per 1,000 m (1% per 1,000 ft) of altitude gained. There are several different types of hot air balloons, all with different means of taking and sustaining flight. Standard hot air balloons are known as Montgolfier balloons and rely solely on

13837-587: The local name for down sloped winds is zonda . In Java, the local name for such winds is koembang. In New Zealand, they are known as the Nor'west arch , and are accompanied by the cloud formation they are named after that has inspired artwork over the years. In the Great Plains of the United States, these winds are known as a chinook . Downslope winds also occur in the foothills of the Appalachian mountains of

13974-464: The location of the jet stream on upper-level constant pressure charts, and are usually located at or above the 300 hPa level. Easterly winds, on average, dominate the flow pattern across the poles, westerly winds blow across the mid-latitudes of the Earth, polewards of the subtropical ridge , while easterlies again dominate the tropics . Directly under the subtropical ridge are the doldrums, or horse latitudes, where winds are lighter. Many of

14111-459: The loss of all hands. Sailing ships can only carry a certain quantity of supplies in their hold , so they have to plan long voyages carefully to include appropriate provisions , including fresh water. For aerodynamic aircraft which operate relative to the air, winds affect groundspeed, and in the case of lighter-than-air vehicles, wind may play a significant or solitary role in their movement and ground track . The velocity of surface wind

14248-478: The main source of erosion is wind. The general wind circulation moves small particulates such as dust across wide oceans thousands of kilometers downwind of their point of origin, which is known as deflation. Westerly winds in the mid-latitudes of the planet drive the movement of ocean currents from west to east across the world's oceans. Wind has a very important role in aiding plants and other immobile organisms in dispersal of seeds, spores, pollen, etc. Although wind

14385-575: The monsoon winds to power furnaces as early as 300 BCE . The furnaces were constructed on the path of the monsoon winds to bring the temperatures inside up to 1,200 °C (2,190 °F). A rudimentary windmill was used to power an organ in the first century CE. Windmills were later built in Sistan , Afghanistan , from the 7th century CE. These were vertical-axle windmills, with sails covered in reed matting or cloth material. These windmills were used to grind corn and draw up water, and were used in

14522-413: The most agriculturally productive in the world. Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess. During mid-summer (July in the northern hemisphere), the westward-moving trade winds south of the northward-moving subtropical ridge expand northwestward from

14659-531: The most used inflation fuel by the 20th Century, as it was lighter than air. Observation balloon usage skyrocketed in Britain by the Royal Engineers at the end of the 19th Century, deploying to Sudan in 1885 and to South Africa during the Second Boer War from 1899 to 1902. Due to the overall design of hot air balloons, controlled and precise steering of hot air balloons is not possible; it

14796-593: The movement of extratropical cyclones through the Mediterranean. Spring storm systems moving across the eastern Mediterranean Sea cause dust to carry across Egypt and the Arabian Peninsula , which are locally known as Khamsin . The Shamal is caused by cold fronts lifting dust into the atmosphere for days at a time across the Persian Gulf states. Wind dispersal of seeds, or anemochory ,

14933-409: The next. Wind engineering describes the study of the effects of the wind on the built environment, including buildings, bridges and other artificial objects. Models can provide spatial and temporal information about airflow. Spatial information can be obtained through the interpolation of data from various measurement stations, allowing for horizontal data calculation. Alternatively, profiles, such as

15070-507: The northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. The trade winds act as the steering flow for tropical cyclones that form over the world's oceans. Trade winds also steer African dust westward across the Atlantic Ocean into the Caribbean, as well as portions of southeast North America. A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind that lasts for several months within tropical regions. The term

15207-424: The passengers. Small holes may be woven into the side of the basket to act as foot holds for passengers climbing in or out. Baskets may also be made of aluminium , especially a collapsible aluminium frame with a fabric skin, to reduce weight or increase portability. These may be used by pilots without a ground crew or who are attempting to set altitude, duration, or distance records. Other specialty baskets include

15344-416: The pilot from being ejected from the basket during a hard landing. Further safety equipment may include a first-aid kit, a fire blanket and a strong rescue knife. Wind Winds are commonly classified by their spatial scale , their speed and direction, the forces that cause them, the regions in which they occur, and their effect. Winds have various defining aspects such as velocity ( wind speed ),

15481-563: The pressure is lower over the poles, and weakest during the summer and when pressures are higher over the poles. Together with the trade winds , the westerlies enabled a round-trip trade route for sailing ships crossing the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, as the westerlies lead to the development of strong ocean currents on the western sides of oceans in both hemispheres through the process of western intensification . These western ocean currents transport warm, sub-tropical water polewards toward

15618-419: The pressure over the water will be lower than that of the land, establishing a land breeze, as long as an onshore wind is not strong enough to oppose it. Over elevated surfaces, heating of the ground exceeds the heating of the surrounding air at the same altitude above sea level , creating an associated thermal low over the terrain and enhancing any thermal lows that would have otherwise existed, and changing

15755-435: The propane itself, if warm enough, or by the introduction of an inert gas such as nitrogen . Tanks may be preheated with electrical heat tapes to produce sufficient vapor pressure for cold-weather flying. Warmed tanks are usually also wrapped in an insulating blanket to preserve heat during the setup and flight. A balloon may be outfitted with a variety of instruments to aid the pilot. These commonly include an altimeter ,

15892-532: The range of transport and warfare, and provided a power source for mechanical work, electricity, and recreation. Wind powers the voyages of sailing ships across Earth's oceans. Hot air balloons use the wind to take short trips, and powered flight uses it to increase lift and reduce fuel consumption. Areas of wind shear caused by various weather phenomena can lead to dangerous situations for aircraft. When winds become strong, trees and human-made structures can be damaged or destroyed. Winds can shape landforms, via

16029-497: The same species on the mainland. Reliance upon wind dispersal is common among many weedy or ruderal species. Unusual mechanisms of wind dispersal include tumbleweeds . A related process to anemochory is anemophily , which is the process where pollen is distributed by wind. Large families of plants are pollinated in this manner, which is favored when individuals of the dominant plant species are spaced closely together. Wind also limits tree growth. On coasts and isolated mountains,

16166-499: The spread of wildfires. Winds can disperse seeds from various plants, enabling the survival and dispersal of those plant species, as well as flying insect and bird populations. When combined with cold temperatures, the wind has a negative impact on livestock. Wind affects animals' food stores, as well as their hunting and defensive strategies. The study of wind is called anemology. Wind is caused by differences in atmospheric pressure, which are mainly due to temperature differences. When

16303-407: The surface affect the takeoff and landing phases of flight of a glider . Wind gradient can have a noticeable effect on ground launches , also known as winch launches or wire launches. If the wind gradient is significant or sudden, or both, and the pilot maintains the same pitch attitude, the indicated airspeed will increase, possibly exceeding the maximum ground launch tow speed. The pilot must adjust

16440-408: The surrounding (ambient) air. The balloon floats because of the buoyant force exerted on it. This force is the same force that acts on objects when they are in water and is described by Archimedes' principle . The amount of lift (or buoyancy ) provided by a hot air balloon depends primarily upon the difference between the temperature of the air inside the envelope and the temperature of the air outside

16577-406: The tether. The first free flight with human passengers was made a few weeks later, on November 21, 1783. King Louis XVI had originally decreed that condemned criminals would be the first pilots , but de Rozier, along with Marquis François d'Arlandes , petitioned successfully for the honor. The first military use of a hot air balloon happened in 1794 during the battle of Fleurus , when

16714-411: The throat to the crown (top) of the envelope, are known as gores or gore sections. Envelopes can have as few as 4 gores or as many as 24 or more. Envelopes often have a crown ring at their very top. This is a hoop of smooth metal, usually aluminium, and approximately 30 cm (1 ft) in diameter. Vertical load tapes from the envelope are attached to the crown ring. At the bottom of the envelope

16851-493: The tree line is often much lower than in corresponding altitudes inland and in larger, more complex mountain systems, because strong winds reduce tree growth. High winds scour away thin soils through erosion, as well as damage limbs and twigs. When high winds knock down or uproot trees, the process is known as windthrow . This is most likely on windward slopes of mountains, with severe cases generally occurring to tree stands that are 75 years or older. Plant varieties near

16988-473: The upper layers of the ocean that elevates cool, nutrient rich waters to the surface, which leads to increased marine life. In mountainous areas, local distortion of the airflow becomes severe. Jagged terrain combines to produce unpredictable flow patterns and turbulence, such as rotors , which can be topped by lenticular clouds . Strong updrafts , downdrafts, and eddies develop as the air flows over hills and down valleys. Orographic precipitation occurs on

17125-467: The vertical load tapes are sewn into loops that are connected to cables (one cable per load tape). These cables, often referred to as flying wires , are connected to the basket by carabiners . The most common technique for sewing panels together is called the French felled , French fell , or double lap seam. The two pieces of fabric are folded over on each other at their common edge, possibly with

17262-412: The warm, equatorial waters and winds to the western coasts of continents, especially in the southern hemisphere because of its vast oceanic expanse. The polar easterlies, also known as Polar Hadley cells, are dry, cold prevailing winds that blow from the high-pressure areas of the polar highs at the north and South Poles towards the low-pressure areas within the Westerlies at high latitudes. Unlike

17399-417: The wider side of the basket for landing. The most common type of top vent is a disk-shaped flap of fabric called a parachute vent , invented by Tracy Barnes. The fabric is connected around its edge to a set of "vent lines" that converge in the center. (The arrangement of fabric and lines roughly resembles a parachute —thus the name.) These "vent lines" are themselves connected to a control line that runs to

17536-502: The wind and cold, continuously alternating the members on the outside of the assembled group, which reduces heat loss by 50%. Flying insects , a subset of arthropods , are swept along by the prevailing winds, while birds follow their own course taking advantage of wind conditions, in order to either fly or glide. As such, fine line patterns within weather radar imagery, associated with converging winds, are dominated by insect returns. Bird migration, which tends to occur overnight within

17673-413: The wind circulation of the region. In areas where there is rugged topography that significantly interrupts the environmental wind flow, the wind circulation between mountains and valleys is the most important contributor to the prevailing winds. Hills and valleys substantially distort the airflow by increasing friction between the atmosphere and landmass by acting as a physical block to the flow, deflecting

17810-561: The wind parallel to the range just upstream of the topography, which is known as a barrier jet . This barrier jet can increase the low-level wind by 45%. Wind direction also changes because of the contour of the land. If there is a pass in the mountain range, winds will rush through the pass with considerable speed because of the Bernoulli principle that describes an inverse relationship between speed and pressure. The airflow can remain turbulent and erratic for some distance downwind into

17947-502: The wind played a pivotal role, or the favorable winds that enabled William of Orange to invade England in 1688. During Napoleon 's Egyptian Campaign , the French soldiers had a hard time with the khamsin wind: when the storm appeared "as a blood-stint in the distant sky", the Ottomans went to take cover, while the French "did not react until it was too late, then choked and fainted in the blinding, suffocating walls of dust". During

18084-407: The wind sampling average is important, as the value of a one-minute sustained wind is typically 14% greater than a ten-minute sustained wind. A short burst of high speed wind is termed a wind gust ; one technical definition of a wind gust is: the maxima that exceed the lowest wind speed measured during a ten-minute time interval by 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph) for periods of seconds. A squall

18221-593: The world altitude record for highest hot air balloon flight, reaching 21,027 m (68,986 ft). He took off from downtown Mumbai , India, and landed 240 km (150 mi) south in Panchale. The previous record of 19,811 m (64,997 ft) had been set by Per Lindstrand on June 6, 1988, in Plano, Texas . On January 15, 1991, the Virgin Pacific Flyer balloon completed the longest flight in

18358-451: The world of mist. In Norse mythology , Njörðr is the god of the wind. There are also four dvärgar ( Norse dwarves ), named Norðri, Suðri, Austri and Vestri , and probably the four stags of Yggdrasil , personify the four winds, and parallel the four Greek wind gods. Stribog is the name of the Slavic god of winds, sky and air. He is said to be the ancestor (grandfather) of the winds of

18495-518: The world was performed in Paris , France, by Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and François Laurent d'Arlandes on November 21, 1783, in a balloon created by the Montgolfier brothers . Hot air balloons that can be propelled through the air rather than simply drifting with the wind are known as thermal airships . A precursor of the hot air balloon was the sky lantern ( simplified Chinese : 孔明灯 ; traditional Chinese : 孔明燈 ). Zhuge Liang of

18632-708: Was first used in English in India, Bangladesh , Pakistan, and neighboring countries to refer to the big seasonal winds blowing from the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea in the southwest bringing heavy rainfall to the area. Its poleward progression is accelerated by the development of a heat low over the Asian, African, and North American continents during May through July, and over Australia in December. The Westerlies or

18769-482: Was the predecessor of the hot air balloon. The Passarola was intended to serve as air vessel in order to facilitate communication and as a strategical device. In 1709 John V of Portugal decided to fund Bartolomeu de Gusmão's project following a petition made by the Jesuit priest, and an unmanned demonstration was performed at Casa da Índia in the presence of John V and the queen, Maria Anna of Austria , with

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