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63-455: Brive-la-Gaillarde ( French pronunciation: [bʁiv la ɡajaʁd] ; Limousin dialect of Occitan : Briva la Galharda ), commonly known as simply Brive , is a commune of France . It is a sub-prefecture and the largest city of the Corrèze department . It has around 46,000 inhabitants, while the population of the agglomeration was 75,579 in 2019. Although it is by far

126-639: A Bachelorʼs degree in Liberal Arts. Kichwa is the variety of the Quechua language spoken in Ecuador and is one of the most widely spoken indigenous languages in South America. Despite this fact, Kichwa is a threatened language, mainly because of the expansion of Spanish in South America. One community of original Kichwa speakers, Lagunas, was one of the first indigenous communities to switch to

189-570: A distinction between language revival (the resurrection of an extinct language with no existing native speakers) and language revitalization (the rescue of a "dying" language). There has only been one successful instance of a complete language revival: that of the Hebrew language . Languages targeted for language revitalization include those whose use and prominence is severely limited . Sometimes various tactics of language revitalization can even be used to try to revive extinct languages . Though

252-428: A division can exist between educated revitalizers, interested in historicity, and remaining speakers interested in locally authentic idiom (as has sometimes occurred with Irish ). Some have argued that structural compromise may, in fact, enhance the prospects of survival, as may have been the case with English in the post- Norman period . Other linguists have argued that when language revitalization borrows heavily from

315-675: A dozen languages from "elsewhere in Canada and around the globe", along with 17 dictionary apps. Similar to other indigenous languages, Tlingit is critically endangered. Fewer than 100 fluent Elders existed as of 2017. From 2013 to 2014, the language activist, author, and teacher, Sʔímlaʔxw Michele K. Johnson from the Syilx Nation, attempted to teach two hopeful learners of Tlingit in the Yukon. Her methods included textbook creation, sequenced immersion curriculum, and film assessment. The aim

378-539: A first language in Gaeltacht areas). Ó Béarra stated: "[to] follow the syntax and idiomatic conventions of English, [would be] producing what amounts to little more than English in Irish drag." With regard to the then-moribund Manx language , the scholar T. F. O'Rahilly stated, "When a language surrenders itself to foreign idiom, and when all its speakers become bilingual, the penalty is death." Neil McRae has stated that

441-768: A first language. Of course this came at the expense of local Italian languages, most of which are now endangered . Success was enjoyed in similar circumstances by High German , standard Czech , Castilian Spanish and other languages. The Coptic language began its decline when Arabic became the predominant language in Egypt. Pope Shenouda III established the Coptic Language Institute in December 1976 in Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Cairo for

504-519: A language spoken by the people of the same name in Massachusetts, underwent a language revival project led by Jessie Little Doe Baird , a trained linguist. Members of the tribe use the extensive written records that exist in their language, including a translation of the Bible and legal documents, in order to learn and teach Wampanoag. The project has seen children speaking the language fluently for

567-769: A little" Ainu. As of 2001, Ainu was not taught in any elementary or secondary schools in Japan, but was offered at numerous language centres and universities in Hokkaido, as well as at Tokyo's Chiba University . In China, the Manchu language is one of the most endangered languages, with speakers only in three small areas of Manchuria remaining. Some enthusiasts are trying to revive the language of their ancestors using available dictionaries and textbooks, and even occasional visits to Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County in Xinjiang , where

630-432: A plan for language revitalization. One of these is provided by celebrated linguist Joshua Fishman . Fishman's model for reviving threatened (or sleeping) languages, or for making them sustainable, consists of an eight-stage process. Efforts should be concentrated on the earlier stages of restoration until they have been consolidated before proceeding to the later stages. The eight stages are: This model of language revival

693-736: A range of different techniques or methods that speakers can use to try to revitalize a language, including techniques to revive extinct languages and maintain weak ones. The techniques he lists are often limited to the current vitality of the language. He claims that the immersion method cannot be used to revitalize an extinct or moribund language. In contrast, the master-apprentice method of one-on-one transmission on language proficiency can be used with moribund languages. Several other methods of revitalization, including those that rely on technology such as recordings or media, can be used for languages in any state of viability. David Crystal , in his book Language Death , proposes that language revitalization

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756-534: A spirit of brotherhood." This article about French culture is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about Romance languages is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Language revival Language revitalization , also referred to as language revival or reversing language shift , is an attempt to halt or reverse the decline of a language or to revive an extinct one. Those involved can include linguists, cultural or community groups, or governments. Some argue for

819-635: A strong renewal. This happened, for example, in the revival of Classical Latin in the Renaissance , and the revival of Sanskrit in the early centuries AD. An analogous phenomenon in contemporary Arabic -speaking areas is the expanded use of the literary language ( Modern Standard Arabic , a form of the Classical Arabic of the 6th century AD). This is taught to all educated speakers and is used in radio broadcasts, formal discussions, etc. In addition, literary languages have sometimes risen to

882-406: A voluntary language. As a result of its loss as an official language and years of marginalization at the official level during and after American colonization, the use of Spanish amongst the overall populace decreased dramatically and became moribund, with the remaining native speakers left being mostly elderly people. The language has seen a gradual revival, however, due to official promotion under

945-510: A wish to be aligned with the prestige of the language, rather than being genuinely indicative of the presence of thousands of L1 Sanskrit speakers in India. There has also been a rise of so-called "Sanskrit villages", but experts have cast doubt on the extent to which Sanskrit is really spoken in such villages. The Soyot language of the small-numbered Soyots in Buryatia , Russia , one of

1008-677: Is active in Limousin (as well as in other parts of Occitania ). Most speakers and linguists consider Limousin to be a variety of Occitan. For more detailed information on this question, see the section on Occitan dialects and codification . As a comparison of Limousin and Languedocien in written form, the following reproduces the first article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights : "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in

1071-524: Is essentially Spanish monolingualism. The feelings of the Lagunas people present a dichotomy with language use, as most of the Lagunas members speak Spanish exclusively and only know a few words in Kichwa. The prospects for Kichwa language revitalization are not promising, as parents depend on schooling for this purpose, which is not nearly as effective as continual language exposure in the home. Schooling in

1134-405: Is intended to direct efforts to where they are most effective and to avoid wasting energy trying to achieve the later stages of recovery when the earlier stages have not been achieved. For instance, it is probably wasteful to campaign for the use of a language on television or in government services if hardly any families are in the habit of using the language. Additionally, Tasaku Tsunoda describes

1197-497: Is largely based on an independent community-based school system, known generally as Gaelscoileanna . These schools teach entirely through Irish and their number is growing, with over thirty such schools in Dublin alone. They are an important element in the creation of a network of urban Irish speakers (known as Gaeilgeoirí), who tend to be young, well-educated and middle-class. It is now likely that this group has acquired critical mass,

1260-468: Is more likely to be successful if its speakers: In her book, Endangered Languages: An Introduction, Sarah Thomason notes the success of revival efforts for modern Hebrew and the relative success of revitalizing Maori in New Zealand (see Specific Examples below). One notable factor these two examples share is that the children were raised in fully immersive environments. In the case of Hebrew, it

1323-625: The Boecis , written around the year 1000. Limousin is used primarily by people over age 50 in rural communities. All speakers speak French as a first or second language. Due to the French single language policy , it is not recognised by the government and therefore considered endangered by the linguistic community. A revivalist movement around the Félibrige and the Institut d'Estudis Occitans

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1386-455: The A89 with Bordeaux. Brive–Souillac Airport lies south of the city. It was opened in 2010 to replace the older Brive-La Roche Airport . The city is home to a rugby union team, CA Brive . It also hosted the 2009 Junior World Rowing Championships. Brive-la-Gaillarde is twinned with: Limousin dialect The first Occitan documents are in an early form of this dialect, particularly

1449-556: The Siberian Turkic languages , has been reconstructed and a Soyot- Buryat - Russian dictionary was published in 2002. The language is currently taught in some elementary schools. The Ainu language of the indigenous Ainu people of northern Japan is currently moribund, but efforts are underway to revive it. A 2006 survey of the Hokkaido Ainu indicated that only 4.6% of Ainu surveyed were able to converse in or "speak

1512-434: The Lagunas community, although having a conscious focus on teaching Kichwa, consists of mainly passive interaction, reading, and writing in Kichwa. In addition to grassroots efforts, national language revitalization organizations, like CONAIE , focus attention on non-Spanish speaking indigenous children, who represent a large minority in the country. Another national initiative, Bilingual Intercultural Education Project (PEBI),

1575-462: The Spanish language. According to King, this was because of the increase of trade and business with the large Spanish-speaking town nearby. The Lagunas people assert that it was not for cultural assimilation purposes, as they value their cultural identity highly. However, once this contact was made, language for the Lagunas people shifted through generations, to Kichwa and Spanish bilingualism and now

1638-566: The administration of former President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo . Most notably, Resolution No. 2006-028 reinstated Spanish as a mandatory subject in secondary schools and universities. Results were immediate as the job demand for Spanish speakers had increased since 2008. As of 2010, the Instituto Cervantes in Manila reported the number of Spanish-speakers in the country with native or non-native knowledge at approximately 3 million,

1701-473: The biggest commune in Corrèze, the capital is Tulle . In French popular culture, the town is associated with a song by Georges Brassens . Even though the inhabitants settled around the 1st century, the city only started to grow much later. From around the 5th century onwards, the original city began to develop around a church dedicated to Saint-Martin-l'Espagnol. During the 12th century walls were built around

1764-538: The case of Hebrew , resulting in Modern Hebrew - now the national language of Israel . In this case, there was a unique set of historical and cultural characteristics that facilitated the revival. (See Revival of the Hebrew language .) Hebrew, once largely a liturgical language , was re-established as a means of everyday communication by Jews, some of who had lived in what is now the State of Israel, starting in

1827-626: The central governments of the different states imposed their vernacular language as the standard throughout education and official use (this was the case in the United Kingdom , France , Spain , Italy and Greece , and to some extent, in Germany and Austria-Hungary ). In the last few [when?] decades, local nationalism and human rights movements have made a more multicultural policy standard in European states; sharp condemnation of

1890-575: The city and during the Hundred Years' War a second wall was built. These fortifications no longer exist and have been replaced by boulevards. The commune was named "Brive" until 1919, when it was renamed "Brive-la-Gaillarde". The word "Gaillarde" (still used in current French ) probably stands for bravery or strength in the city's name, but it can also refer to the city's walls. Brive now extends outside of its original boundaries into Malemort and Ussac . During World War II , Brive-la-Gaillarde

1953-796: The city received the " Croix de guerre 1939–1945 " military decoration. The medieval centre is mainly a commercial district with retail shops and various cafés . It is also the location of the city hall, the main police station, and the Labenche museum. One notable landmark outside the inner city is the Pont Cardinal , a bridge which used to be a crossing point for travelers from Paris to Toulouse . The most recent mayors of Brive-la-Gaillarde were: Brive-la-Gaillarde railway station offers connections to Limoges , Périgueux , Bordeaux , Toulouse , Paris and several regional destinations. The A20 motorway connects Brive with Limoges and Toulouse,

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2016-700: The creation of the Saroyan Committee or the Armenian Language Preservation Committee, launched in 2013. Other attempts at language revitalization can be seen within the University of California in Irvine . In Thailand, there exists a Chong language revitalization project, headed by Suwilai Premsrirat. In Europe , in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the use of both local and learned languages declined as

2079-460: The death or emigration of many Irish speakers during the Irish famine of the 1840s, and continued emigration since. Efforts to revitalise Irish were being made, however, from the mid-1800s, and were associated with a desire for Irish political independence. Contemporary Irish language revitalization has chiefly involved teaching Irish as a compulsory language in mainstream English-speaking schools. But

2142-768: The dialect remain in diasporic communities away from their homeland in Anatolia, following the Armenian genocide . In spite of this, there have been various efforts to revitalize the language, especially within the Los Angeles community where the majority of Western Armenians reside. Within her dissertation, Shushan Karapetian discusses at length the decline of the Armenian language in the United States, and new means for keeping and reviving Western Armenian, such as

2205-679: The earlier practices of suppressing regional languages was expressed in the use of such terms as " linguicide ". In Francoist Spain , Basque language use was discouraged by the government's repressive policies . In the Basque Country, "Francoist repression was not only political, but also linguistic and cultural." Franco's regime suppressed Basque from official discourse, education, and publishing, making it illegal to register newborn babies under Basque names, and even requiring tombstone engravings in Basque to be removed. In some provinces

2268-640: The early Jewish immigrants to Ottoman Palestine and received the official status in the 1922 constitution of the British Mandate for Palestine and subsequently of the State of Israel . There have been recent attempts at reviving Sanskrit in India. However, despite these attempts, there are no first language speakers of Sanskrit in India. In each of India's recent decennial censuses, several thousand citizens have reported Sanskrit to be their mother tongue. However, these reports are thought to signify

2331-412: The eve of Italian unification , the language only counted about 500,000 speakers (many non-native), out of a total population of c.  22,000,000 . The subsequent success of the language has been through conscious development, where speakers of any of the numerous Italian languages were taught standard Italian as a second language and subsequently imparted it to their children, who learned it as

2394-430: The exploitation of indigenous natural resources, political danger such as genocide, or cultural danger/assimilation. In recent times alone, it is estimated that more than 2000 languages have already become extinct. The UN estimates that more than half of the languages spoken today have fewer than 10,000 speakers and that a quarter have fewer than 1,000 speakers; and that, unless there are some efforts to maintain them, over

2457-512: The failure to teach it in an effective and engaging way means (as linguist Andrew Carnie notes) that students do not acquire the fluency needed for the lasting viability of the language, and this leads to boredom and resentment. Carnie also noted a lack of media in Irish (2006), though this is no longer the case. The decline of the Gaeltachtaí and the failure of state-directed revitalisation have been countered by an urban revival movement. This

2520-409: The field of historical linguistics by, for instance, weakening the family tree model , which implies that a language has only one parent." There are disagreements in the field of language revitalization as to the degree that revival should concentrate on maintaining the traditional language, versus allowing simplification or widespread borrowing from the majority language . Zuckermann acknowledges

2583-619: The figure albeit including those who speak the Spanish-based creole Chavacano . Complementing government efforts is a notable surge of exposure through the mainstream media and, more recently, music-streaming services. The Western Armenian language, has been classified as a definitely endangered language in the Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger (2010), as most speakers of

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2646-904: The first time in over 100 years. In addition, there are currently attempts at reviving the Chochenyo language of California, which had become extinct. Efforts are being made by the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community and others to keep Chinook Jargon , also known as Chinuk Wawa , alive. This is helped by the corpus of songs and stories collected from Victoria Howard and published by Melville Jacobs . The open-source platform FirstVoices hosts community-managed websites for 85 language revitalization projects, covering multiple varieties of 33 Indigenous languages in British Columbia as well as over

2709-435: The globe. According to Zuckermann, "revival linguistics combines scientific studies of native language acquisition and foreign language learning. After all, language reclamation is the most extreme case of second-language learning. Revival linguistics complements the established area of documentary linguistics , which records endangered languages before they fall asleep." Zuckermann proposes that "revival linguistics changes

2772-399: The goals of language revitalization vary greatly from case to case, they typically involve attempting to expand the number of speakers and use of a language, or trying to maintain the current level of use to protect the language from extinction or language death . Reasons for revitalization vary: they can include physical danger affecting those whose language is dying, economic danger such as

2835-425: The home, and maintaining national and regional attention. The revival of the Hebrew language is the only successful example of a revived dead language. The Hebrew language survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy and rabbinic literature . With the rise of Zionism in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, becoming primarily a spoken lingua franca among

2898-404: The land, making up an essential part of their history and self-image. Language revitalization is also closely tied to the linguistic field of language documentation . In this field, linguists try to create a complete record of a language's grammar, vocabulary, and linguistic features. This practice can often lead to more concern for the revitalization of a specific language on study. Furthermore,

2961-423: The level of becoming first languages of very large language communities. An example is standard Italian , which originated as a literary language based on the language of 13th-century Florence , especially as used by such important Florentine writers as Dante , Petrarch and Boccaccio . This language existed for several centuries primarily as a literary vehicle, with few native speakers; even as late as 1861, on

3024-445: The majority language, the result is a new language, perhaps a creole or pidgin . For example, the existence of "Neo-Hawaiian" as a separate language from "Traditional Hawaiian" has been proposed, due to the heavy influence of English on every aspect of the revived Hawaiian language. This has also been proposed for Irish, with a sharp division between "Urban Irish" (spoken by second-language speakers) and traditional Irish (as spoken as

3087-433: The next hundred years most of these will become extinct. These figures are often cited as reasons why language revitalization is necessary to preserve linguistic diversity. Culture and identity are also frequently cited reasons for language revitalization, when a language is perceived as a unique "cultural treasure." A community often sees language as a unique part of their culture, connecting them with their ancestors or with

3150-414: The nineteenth century. It is the world's most famous and successful example of language revitalization. In a related development, literary languages without native speakers enjoyed great prestige and practical utility as lingua francas , often counting millions of fluent speakers at a time. In many such cases, a decline in the use of the literary language, sometimes precipitous, was later accompanied by

3213-416: The old. One of the best known European attempts at language revitalization concerns the Irish language . While English is dominant through most of Ireland, Irish, a Celtic language , is still spoken in certain areas called Gaeltachta í , but there it is in serious decline. The challenges faced by the language over the last few centuries have included exclusion from important domains, social denigration,

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3276-737: The presence of "local peculiarities and idiosyncrasies" but suggests that "there are linguistic constraints applicable to all revival attempts. Mastering them would help revivalists and first nations' leaders to work more efficiently. For example, it is easier to resurrect basic vocabulary and verbal conjugations than sounds and word order. Revivalists should be realistic and abandon discouraging, counter-productive slogans such as "Give us authenticity or give us death!" Nancy Dorian has pointed out that conservative attitudes toward loanwords and grammatical changes often hamper efforts to revitalize endangered languages (as with Tiwi in Australia), and that

3339-492: The public use of Basque was suppressed, with people fined for speaking it. Public use of Basque was frowned upon by supporters of the regime, often regarded as a sign of anti-Francoism or separatism . in the late 1960s. Since 1968, Basque has been immersed in a revitalisation process, facing formidable obstacles. However, significant progress has been made in numerous areas. Six main factors have been identified to explain its relative success: While those six factors influenced

3402-476: The purpose of reviving the Coptic language. In recent years, a growing number of Native American tribes have been trying to revitalize their languages. For example, there are apps (including phrases, word lists and dictionaries) in many Native languages including Cree , Cherokee , Chickasaw , Lakota , Ojibwe , Oneida , Massachusett , Navajo , Halq'emeylem , Gwych'in , and Lushootseed . Wampanoag ,

3465-464: The related Xibe language is still spoken natively. In the Philippines, a local variety of Spanish that was primarily based on Mexican Spanish was the lingua franca of the country since Spanish colonization in 1565 and was an official language alongside Filipino (standardized Tagalog ) and English until 1987, following the ratification of a new constitution, where it was re-designated as

3528-410: The revitalisation process, the extensive development and use of language technologies is also considered a significant additional factor. Overall, in the 1960s and later, the trend reversed and education and publishing in Basque began to flourish. A sociolinguistic survey shows that there has been a steady increase in Basque speakers since the 1990s, and the percentage of young speakers exceeds that of

3591-461: The six-degree scale) to "characterize a language’s overall sociolinguistic situation". The nine factors with their respective scales are: One of the most important preliminary steps in language revitalization/recovering involves establishing the degree to which a particular language has been “dislocated.” This helps involved parties find the best way to assist or revive the language. There are many different theories or models that attempt to lay out

3654-504: The task of documentation is often taken on with the goal of revitalization in mind. Uses a six-point scale is as follows: Another scale for identifying degrees of language endangerment is used in a 2003 paper ("Language Vitality and Endangerment") commissioned by UNESCO from an international group of linguists. The linguists, among other goals and priorities, create a scale with six degrees for language vitality and endangerment. They also propose nine factors or criteria (six of which use

3717-406: The uses of Scottish Gaelic are becoming increasingly tokenistic, and native Gaelic idiom is being lost in favor of artificial terms created by second-language speakers. The total revival of a dead language (in the sense of having no native speakers ) to become the shared means of communication of a self-sustaining community of several million first language speakers has happened only once, in

3780-592: Was a regional capital of the Resistance, acting as a seat of several clandestine information networks and several of the principal resistance movements, including the Armée secrète (or " Secret Army ") and the Mouvements Unis de la Résistance (or "United Movements of the Resistance"). Brive-la-Gaillarde was the first city of Occupied France to liberate itself by its own means, on 15 August 1944. For this,

3843-419: Was ineffective in language revitalization because instruction was given in Kichwa and Spanish was taught as a second language to children who were almost exclusively Spanish monolinguals. Although some techniques seem ineffective, Kendall A. King provides several suggestions: Specific suggestions include imparting an elevated perception of the language in schools, focusing on grassroots efforts both in school and

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3906-725: Was on early collective-communities called kibbutzim . For the Maori language In New Zealand, this was done through a language nest . Ghil'ad Zuckermann proposes "Revival Linguistics" as a new linguistic discipline and paradigm. Zuckermann's term 'Revival Linguistics' is modelled upon 'Contact Linguistics'. Revival linguistics inter alia explores the universal constraints and mechanisms involved in language reclamation, renewal and revitalization. It draws perspicacious comparative insights from one revival attempt to another, thus acting as an epistemological bridge between parallel discourses in various local attempts to revive sleeping tongues all over

3969-587: Was to assist in the creation of adult speakers that are of parent-age, so that they too can begin teaching the language. In 2020, X̱ʼunei Lance Twitchell led a Tlingit online class with Outer Coast College . Dozens of students participated. He is an associate professor of Alaska Native Languages in the School of Arts and Sciences at the University of Alaska Southeast which offers a minor in Tlingit language and an emphasis on Alaska Native Languages and Studies within

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