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65-473: Garaši is also a popular fishing spot for locals and visitors from across Serbia and Europe. The reservoir frequently hosts fishing tournaments, primarily focused on bass. The city’s fishermen’s organization oversees the wildlife in and around the lake, providing food and managing the fish population to keep it healthy and sustainable. The name "Bukulja" originates from the Serbian word for beech ( bukva ), as

130-484: A bird feeds a brood parasite such as a cuckoo , it is unwittingly extending its phenotype; and when genes in an orchid affect orchid bee behavior to increase pollination, or when genes in a peacock affect the copulatory decisions of peahens, again, the phenotype is being extended. Genes are, in Dawkins's view, selected by their phenotypic effects. Other biologists broadly agree that the extended phenotype concept

195-651: A bitter, astringent, or in some cases, mild and nut-like taste. According to the Roman statesman Pliny the Elder in his work Natural History , beechnut was eaten by the people of Chios when the town was besieged, writing of the fruit: "that of the beech is the sweetest of all; so much so, that, according to Cornelius Alexander, the people of the city of Chios, when besieged, supported themselves wholly on mast". They can also be roasted and pulverized into an adequate coffee substitute . The leaves can be steeped in liquor to give

260-429: A decorative wood. The timber can be used to build chalets, houses, and log cabins. Beech wood is used for the stocks of military rifles when traditionally preferred woods such as walnut are scarce or unavailable or as a lower-cost alternative. The edible fruit of the beech tree, known as beechnuts or mast, is found in small burrs that drop from the tree in autumn. They are small, roughly triangular, and edible, with

325-518: A gene has on its surroundings, including other organisms, as an extended phenotype, arguing that "An animal's behavior tends to maximize the survival of the genes 'for' that behavior, whether or not those genes happen to be in the body of the particular animal performing it." For instance, an organism such as a beaver modifies its environment by building a beaver dam ; this can be considered an expression of its genes , just as its incisor teeth are—which it uses to modify its environment. Similarly, when

390-529: A large part of the Human Genome Project . Phenomics has applications in agriculture. For instance, genomic variations such as drought and heat resistance can be identified through phenomics to create more durable GMOs. Phenomics may be a stepping stone towards personalized medicine , particularly drug therapy . Once the phenomic database has acquired enough data, a person's phenomic information can be used to select specific drugs tailored to

455-399: A letter of the alphabet) is буква ( bukva ), while Serbo-Croatian and Slovene use " bukva " to refer to the tree. The pigment bistre was made from beech wood soot . Beech litter raking as a replacement for straw in animal husbandry was an old non-timber practice in forest management that once occurred in parts of Switzerland in the 17th century. Beech has been listed as one of

520-459: A light green/yellow liqueur. In antiquity, the bark of the beech tree was used by Indo-European people for writing-related purposes, especially in a religious context. Beech wood tablets were a common writing material in Germanic societies before the development of paper . The Old English bōc has the primary sense of "beech" but also a secondary sense of "book", and it is from bōc that

585-490: A long history of cultivation, Bulgaria for example, do not exhibit this pattern, so how much human activity has influenced the spread of beech trees is as yet unclear. The primeval beech forests of the Carpathians are also an example of a singular, complete, and comprehensive forest dominated by a single tree species - the beech tree. Forest dynamics here were allowed to proceed without interruption or interference since

650-537: A multidimensional search space with several neurobiological levels, spanning the proteome, cellular systems (e.g., signaling pathways), neural systems and cognitive and behavioural phenotypes." Plant biologists have started to explore the phenome in the study of plant physiology. In 2009, a research team demonstrated the feasibility of identifying genotype–phenotype associations using electronic health records (EHRs) linked to DNA biobanks . They called this method phenome-wide association study (PheWAS). Inspired by

715-687: A naturally growing forest tree, beech marks the important border between the European deciduous forest zone and the northern pine forest zone. This border is important for wildlife and fauna. In Denmark and Scania at the southernmost peak of the Scandinavian peninsula, southwest of the natural spruce boundary, it is the most common forest tree. It grows naturally in Denmark and southern Norway and Sweden up to about 57–59°N. The most northern known naturally growing (not planted) beech trees are found in

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780-453: A particular enzyme is expressed at high levels, the organism may produce more of that enzyme and exhibit a particular trait as a result. On the other hand, if the gene is expressed at low levels, the organism may produce less of the enzyme and exhibit a different trait. Gene expression is regulated at various levels and thus each level can affect certain phenotypes, including transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation. Changes in

845-789: A separate family, the Nothofagaceae (which remains a member of the order Fagales ). They are found throughout the Southern Hemisphere in Australia , New Zealand , New Guinea , New Caledonia , as well as Argentina and Chile (principally Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego ). Species treated in Denk et al. (2024) and listed in Plants of the World Online (POWO) : Erroneously synonymized by some authors (e.g. POWO) with

910-560: A small grove north of Bergen on the west coast of Norway. Near the city of Larvik is the largest naturally occurring beech forest in Norway, Bøkeskogen . Some research suggests that early agriculture patterns supported the spread of beech in continental Europe. Research has linked the establishment of beech stands in Scandinavia and Germany with cultivation and fire disturbance, i.e. early agricultural practices. Other areas which have

975-578: A substantially different nucleome (nuclear DNA) , especially in noncoding, highly variable gene regions such as the spacers of the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes (ribosomal DNA) . Further differentiating characteristics include the whitish bloom on the underside of the leaves, the visible tertiary leaf veins, and a long, smooth cupule-peduncle. Originally proposed but not formalized by botanist Chung-Fu Shen in 1992, this group comprised two Japanese species, F. japonica and F. okamotoi, and one Chinese species, F. engleriana . While

1040-440: A tone between those of maple and birch , the two most popular drum woods. The textile modal is a kind of rayon often made wholly from reconstituted cellulose of pulped beech wood. The European species Fagus sylvatica yields a tough, utility timber. It weighs about 720 kg per cubic metre and is widely used for furniture construction, flooring, and engineering purposes, in plywood and household items, but rarely as

1105-524: A utility timber used for furniture construction, flooring and engineering purposes, in plywood, and household items. The timber can be used to build homes. Beechwood makes excellent firewood . Slats of washed beech wood are spread around the bottom of fermentation tanks for Budweiser beer. Beech logs are burned to dry the malt used in some German smoked beers . Beech is also used to smoke Westphalian ham , andouille sausage, and some cheeses. Beeches are monoecious , bearing both male and female flowers on

1170-795: A variety of spine- to scale-like appendages, the character of which is, in addition to leaf shape, one of the primary ways beeches are differentiated. The nuts are called beechnuts or beech mast and have a bitter taste (though not nearly as bitter as acorns ) and a high tannin content. The most recent classification system of the genus recognizes 14 species in two distinct subgenera, subgenus Englerianae and Fagus . Beech species can be diagnosed by phenotypical and/or genotypical traits. Species of subgenus Engleriana are found only in East Asia, and are notably distinct from species of subgenus Fagus in that these beeches are low-branching trees, often made up of several major trunks with yellowish bark and

1235-407: Is Labrador Retriever coloring ; while the coat color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black, and brown. Richard Dawkins in 1978 and then again in his 1982 book The Extended Phenotype suggested that one can regard bird nests and other built structures such as caddisfly larva cases and beaver dams as "extended phenotypes". Wilhelm Johannsen proposed

1300-463: Is found growing in two different habitats in Sweden. One habitat is rocky, sea-side cliffs , where the plants are bushy with broad leaves and expanded inflorescences ; the other is among sand dunes where the plants grow prostrate with narrow leaves and compact inflorescences. These habitats alternate along the coast of Sweden and the habitat that the seeds of Hieracium umbellatum land in, determine

1365-415: Is found only in East Asia, distinctive for its low branches, often made up of several major trunks with yellowish bark. The better known species of subgenus Fagus are native to Europe , western and eastern Asia and eastern North America. They are high-branching trees with tall, stout trunks and smooth silver-grey bark. The European beech Fagus sylvatica is the most commonly cultivated species, yielding

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1430-655: Is located in an exceptionally pure and protected area, shielded by layers of clay and granite from the Bukulja mountain. This Serbia location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Beech See text Beech ( Fagus ) is a genus of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae , native to subtropical (accessory forest element) and temperate (as dominant element of mesophytic forests) Eurasia and North America . There are 14 accepted species in two distinct subgenera, Englerianae Denk & G.W.Grimm and Fagus . The subgenus Englerianae

1495-428: Is not planted much as an ornamental due to slower growth and less resistance to urban pollution. It most commonly occurs as an overstory component in the northern part of its range with sugar maple, transitioning to other forest types further south such as beech-magnolia. American beech is rarely encountered in developed areas except as a remnant of a forest that was cut down for land development. The dead brown leaves of

1560-417: Is problematic. A proposed definition for both terms as the "physical totality of all traits of an organism or of one of its subsystems" was put forth by Mahner and Kary in 1997, who argue that although scientists tend to intuitively use these and related terms in a manner that does not impede research, the terms are not well defined and usage of the terms is not consistent. Some usages of the term suggest that

1625-478: Is relevant, but consider that its role is largely explanatory, rather than assisting in the design of experimental tests. Phenotypes are determined by an interaction of genes and the environment, but the mechanism for each gene and phenotype is different. For instance, an albino phenotype may be caused by a mutation in the gene encoding tyrosinase which is a key enzyme in melanin formation. However, exposure to UV radiation can increase melanin production, hence

1690-412: Is the hypothesized pre-cellular stage in the evolutionary history of life on earth, in which self-replicating RNA molecules proliferated prior to the evolution of DNA and proteins. The folded three-dimensional physical structure of the first RNA molecule that possessed ribozyme activity promoting replication while avoiding destruction would have been the first phenotype, and the nucleotide sequence of

1755-559: Is the most commonly cultivated, although few important differences are seen between species aside from detail elements such as leaf shape. The leaves of beech trees are entire or sparsely toothed, from 5–15 centimetres (2–6 inches) long and 4–10 cm (2–4 in) broad. The bark is smooth and light gray. The fruit is a small, sharply three-angled nut 10–15 mm ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 5 ⁄ 8  in) long, borne singly or in pairs in soft-spined husks 1.5–2.5 cm ( 5 ⁄ 8 –1 in) long, known as cupules. The husk can have

1820-653: The cryptic sister species F. hayatae and F. pashanica ) , two pseudo-cryptic species in eastern North America ( F. grandifolia , F. mexicana ), and a species complex of at least four species ( F. caspica , F. hohenackeriana , F. orientalis , F. sylvatica ) in Western Eurasia . Their genetics are highly complex and include both species-unique alleles as well as alleles and ribosomal DNA spacers that are shared between two or more species. The western Eurasian species are characterized by morphological and genetical gradients. Research suggests that

1885-550: The genotype–phenotype distinction in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's hereditary material and what that hereditary material produces. The distinction resembles that proposed by August Weismann (1834–1914), who distinguished between germ plasm (heredity) and somatic cells (the body). More recently, in The Selfish Gene (1976), Dawkins distinguished these concepts as replicators and vehicles. Despite its seemingly straightforward definition,

1950-508: The 38 plants whose flowers are used to prepare Bach flower remedies . Phenotype In genetics , the phenotype (from Ancient Greek φαίνω ( phaínō )  'to appear, show' and τύπος ( túpos )  'mark, type') is the set of observable characteristics or traits of an organism . The term covers the organism's morphology (physical form and structure), its developmental processes, its biochemical and physiological properties, its behavior , and

2015-636: The American beech remain on the branches until well into the following spring, when the new buds finally push them off. East Asia is home to eight species of Fagus , only one of which ( F. crenata ) is occasionally planted in Western countries. Smaller than F. sylvatica and F. grandifolia , this beech is one of the most common hardwoods in its native range. Beech grows on a wide range of soil types, acidic or basic, provided they are not waterlogged. The tree canopy casts dense shade and thickens

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2080-723: The Crimean F. × taurica, from which it differs morphologically and genetically. Numerous species have been named globally from the fossil record spanning from the Cretaceous to the Pleistocene . Fossil species formerly placed in Fagus include: The name of the tree in Latin, fagus (from whence the generic epithet ), is cognate with English "beech" and of Indo-European origin, and played an important role in early debates on

2145-521: The bottom of fermentation tanks for Budweiser beer. This provides a complex surface on which the yeast can settle, so that it does not pile up, preventing yeast autolysis which would contribute off-flavours to the beer. Beech logs are burned to dry the malt used in German smoked beers . Beech is also used to smoke Westphalian ham , traditional andouille (an offal sausage) from Normandy, and some cheeses. Some drums are made from beech, which has

2210-450: The concept of the phenotype has hidden subtleties. It may seem that anything dependent on the genotype is a phenotype, including molecules such as RNA and proteins . Most molecules and structures coded by the genetic material are not visible in the appearance of an organism, yet they are observable (for example by Western blotting ) and are thus part of the phenotype; human blood groups are an example. It may seem that this goes beyond

2275-517: The context of phenotype prediction. Although a phenotype is the ensemble of observable characteristics displayed by an organism, the word phenome is sometimes used to refer to a collection of traits, while the simultaneous study of such a collection is referred to as phenomics . Phenomics is an important field of study because it can be used to figure out which genomic variants affect phenotypes which then can be used to explain things like health, disease, and evolutionary fitness. Phenomics forms

2340-483: The corresponding amino acid sequence of a gene may change the frequency of guanine - cytosine base pairs ( GC content ). These base pairs have a higher thermal stability ( melting point ) than adenine - thymine , a property that might convey, among organisms living in high-temperature environments, a selective advantage on variants enriched in GC content. Richard Dawkins described a phenotype that included all effects that

2405-578: The disease has become widespread in Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and in portions of coastal New Hampshire and coastal and central Maine. The beech most commonly grown as an ornamental tree is the European beech ( Fagus sylvatica ), widely cultivated in North America as well as its native Europe. Many varieties are in cultivation, notably the weeping beech F. sylvatica 'Pendula', several varieties of copper or purple beech,

2470-821: The eastern United States and southeastern Canada, with a disjunct sister species in Mexico ( F. mexicana ). There are the only extant (surviving) Fagus species in the Western Hemisphere. Before the Pleistocene Ice Age, it is believed to have spanned the entire width of the continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific but now is confined to the east of the Great Plains. F. grandifolia tolerates hotter climates than European species but

2535-415: The environment plays a role in this phenotype as well. For most complex phenotypes the precise genetic mechanism remains unknown. For instance, it is largely unclear how genes determine the shape of bones or the human ear. Gene expression plays a crucial role in determining the phenotypes of organisms. The level of gene expression can affect the phenotype of an organism. For example, if a gene that codes for

2600-439: The evolution from genotype to genome to pan-genome , a concept of exploring the relationship ultimately among pan-phenome, pan-genome , and pan- envirome was proposed in 2023. Phenotypic variation (due to underlying heritable genetic variation ) is a fundamental prerequisite for evolution by natural selection . It is the living organism as a whole that contributes (or not) to the next generation, so natural selection affects

2665-662: The exception of the Western Eurasian and North American species. Fagus is the first diverging lineage in the evolution of the Fagaceae family, which also includes oaks and chestnuts . The oldest fossils that can be assigned to the beech lineage are 81–82 million years old pollen from the Late Cretaceous of Wyoming , United States. The southern beeches (genus Nothofagus ) historically thought closely related to beeches, are treated as members of

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2730-440: The false statement that a "mutation has no phenotype". Behaviors and their consequences are also phenotypes, since behaviors are observable characteristics. Behavioral phenotypes include cognitive, personality, and behavioral patterns. Some behavioral phenotypes may characterize psychiatric disorders or syndromes. A phenome is the set of all traits expressed by a cell , tissue , organ , organism , or species . The term

2795-728: The fern-leaved beech F. sylvatica 'Asplenifolia', and the tricolour beech F. sylvatica 'Roseomarginata'. The columnar Dawyck beech ( F. sylvatica 'Dawyck') occurs in green, gold, and purple forms, named after Dawyck Botanic Garden in the Scottish Borders, one of the four garden sites of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh . Beech wood is an excellent firewood , easily split and burning for many hours with bright but calm flames. Slats of beech wood are washed in caustic soda to leach out any flavour or aroma characteristics and are spread around

2860-759: The first representatives of the modern-day genus were already present in the Paleocene of Arctic North America (western Greenland ) and quickly radiated across the high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere , with a first diversity peak in the Miocene of northeastern Asia . The contemporary species are the product of past, repeated reticulate evolutionary processes ( outbreeding , introgression , hybridization ). As far as studied, heterozygosity and intragenomic variation are common in beech species, and their chloroplast genomes are nonspecific with

2925-541: The genetic structure of a population indirectly via the contribution of phenotypes. Without phenotypic variation, there would be no evolution by natural selection. The interaction between genotype and phenotype has often been conceptualized by the following relationship: A more nuanced version of the relationship is: Genotypes often have much flexibility in the modification and expression of phenotypes; in many organisms these phenotypes are very different under varying environmental conditions. The plant Hieracium umbellatum

2990-491: The geographical origins of the Indo-European people , the beech argument . Greek φηγός (figós) is from the same root, but the word was transferred to the oak tree (e.g. Iliad 16.767) as a result of the absence of beech trees in southern Greece . Fagus sylvatica was a late entrant to Great Britain after the last glaciation, and may have been restricted to basic soils in the south of England. Some suggest that it

3055-479: The ground with leaf litter . In North America, they can form beech-maple climax forests by partnering with the sugar maple . The beech blight aphid ( Grylloprociphilus imbricator ) is a common pest of American beech trees. Beeches are also used as food plants by some species of Lepidoptera . Beech bark is extremely thin and scars easily. Since the beech tree has such delicate bark, carvings, such as lovers' initials and other forms of graffiti, remain because

3120-721: The individual. Large-scale genetic screens can identify the genes or mutations that affect the phenotype of an organism. Analyzing the phenotypes of mutant genes can also aid in determining gene function. Most genetic screens have used microorganisms, in which genes can be easily deleted. For instance, nearly all genes have been deleted in E. coli and many other bacteria , but also in several eukaryotic model organisms such as baker's yeast and fission yeast . Among other discoveries, such studies have revealed lists of essential genes . More recently, large-scale phenotypic screens have also been used in animals, e.g. to study lesser understood phenotypes such as behavior . In one screen,

3185-572: The last ice age. Nowadays, they are amongst the last pure beech forests in Europe to document the undisturbed postglacial repopulation of the species, which also includes the unbroken existence of typical animals and plants. These virgin beech forests and similar forests across 12 countries in continental Europe were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2007. The American beech ( Fagus grandifolia ) occurs across much of

3250-626: The levels of gene expression can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as environmental conditions, genetic variations, and epigenetic modifications. These modifications can be influenced by environmental factors such as diet, stress, and exposure to toxins, and can have a significant impact on an individual's phenotype. Some phenotypes may be the result of changes in gene expression due to these factors, rather than changes in genotype. An experiment involving machine learning methods utilizing gene expressions measured from RNA sequencing found that they can contain enough signal to separate individuals in

3315-429: The modern word derives. In modern German, the word for "book" is Buch, with Buche meaning "beech tree". In modern Dutch, the word for "book" is boek, with beuk meaning "beech tree". In Swedish, these words are the same, bok meaning both "beech tree" and "book". There is a similar relationship in some Slavic languages. In Russian and Bulgarian , the word for beech is бук ( buk ), while that for "letter" (as in

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3380-423: The mountain’s slopes and summit are densely forested with beech trees. The area offers well-maintained paths and a paved road to the summit, where a hunter's hostel is located. This spot attracts many hikers and hunters from Aranđelovac, Belgrade, and other towns and villages across Serbia. Bukulja is also renowned as the source of Knjaz Miloš mineral water. The source, situated 500 meters (1,600 feet) underground,

3445-619: The number of putative mutants (see table for details). Putative mutants are then tested for heritability in order to help determine the inheritance pattern as well as map out the mutations. Once they have been mapped out, cloned, and identified, it can be determined whether a mutation represents a new gene or not. These experiments showed that mutations in the rhodopsin gene affected vision and can even cause retinal degeneration in mice. The same amino acid change causes human familial blindness , showing how phenotyping in animals can inform medical diagnostics and possibly therapy. The RNA world

3510-411: The original intentions of the concept with its focus on the (living) organism in itself. Either way, the term phenotype includes inherent traits or characteristics that are observable or traits that can be made visible by some technical procedure. The term "phenotype" has sometimes been incorrectly used as a shorthand for the phenotypic difference between a mutant and its wild type , which would lead to

3575-438: The phenome of a given organism is best understood as a kind of matrix of data representing physical manifestation of phenotype. For example, discussions led by A. Varki among those who had used the term up to 2003 suggested the following definition: "The body of information describing an organism's phenotypes, under the influences of genetic and environmental factors". Another team of researchers characterize "the human phenome [as]

3640-531: The phenotype that grows. An example of random variation in Drosophila flies is the number of ommatidia , which may vary (randomly) between left and right eyes in a single individual as much as they do between different genotypes overall, or between clones raised in different environments. The concept of phenotype can be extended to variations below the level of the gene that affect an organism's fitness. For example, silent mutations that do not change

3705-417: The products of behavior. An organism's phenotype results from two basic factors: the expression of an organism's genetic code (its genotype ) and the influence of environmental factors. Both factors may interact, further affecting the phenotype. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species, the species is called polymorphic . A well-documented example of polymorphism

3770-428: The role of mutations in mice were studied in areas such as learning and memory , circadian rhythmicity , vision, responses to stress and response to psychostimulants . This experiment involved the progeny of mice treated with ENU , or N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea, which is a potent mutagen that causes point mutations . The mice were phenotypically screened for alterations in the different behavioral domains in order to find

3835-455: The same plant. The small flowers are unisexual, the female flowers borne in pairs, the male flowers wind-pollinating catkins . They are produced in spring shortly after the new leaves appear. The fruit of the beech tree, known as beechnuts or mast, is found in small burrs that drop from the tree in autumn. They are small, roughly triangular, and edible, with a bitter, astringent, or mild and nut-like taste. The European beech ( Fagus sylvatica )

3900-793: The status of F. okamotoi remains uncertain, the most recent systematic treatment based on morphological and genetic data confirmed a third species, F. multinervis, endemic to Ulleungdo , a South Korean island in the Sea of Japan . The beeches of Ulleungdo have been traditionally treated as a subspecies of F. engleriana, to which they are phenotypically identical, or as a variety of F. japonica. The differ from their siblings by their unique nuclear and plastid genotypes. The better known subgenus Fagus beeches are high-branching with tall, stout trunks and smooth silver-gray bark. This group includes five extant species in continental and insular East Asia ( F. crenata , F. longipetiolata , F. lucida , and

3965-622: The tree is unable to heal itself. Beech bark disease is a fungal infection that attacks the American beech through damage caused by scale insects. Infection can lead to the death of the tree. Beech leaf disease is a disease that affects American beeches spread by the newly discovered nematode, Litylenchus crenatae mccannii . This disease was first discovered in Lake County, Ohio, in 2012 and has now spread to over 41 counties in Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, and Ontario, Canada. As of 2024,

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4030-583: The world (according to Guinness World Records ) is the Meikleour Beech Hedge in Meikleour , Perth and Kinross , Scotland. Fagus sylvatica is one of the most common hardwood trees in north-central Europe, in France constituting alone about 15% of all nonconifers. The Balkans are also home to the lesser-known oriental beech ( F. orientalis ) and Crimean beech ( F. taurica ). As

4095-513: Was designated for its beech woodlands, which are believed to be on the western edge of their natural range in this steep limestone gorge. Beech is not native to Ireland; however, it was widely planted in the 18th century and can become a problem shading out the native woodland understory. Beech is widely planted for hedging and in deciduous woodlands, and mature, regenerating stands occur throughout mainland Britain at elevations below about 650 m (2,100 ft). The tallest and longest hedge in

4160-405: Was first used by Davis in 1949, "We here propose the name phenome for the sum total of extragenic, non-autoreproductive portions of the cell, whether cytoplasmic or nuclear. The phenome would be the material basis of the phenotype, just as the genome is the material basis of the genotype ." Although phenome has been in use for many years, the distinction between the use of phenome and phenotype

4225-459: Was introduced by Neolithic tribes who planted the trees for their edible nuts. The beech is classified as a native in the south of England and as a non-native in the north where it is often removed from 'native' woods. Large areas of the Chilterns are covered with beech woods, which are habitat to the common bluebell and other flora. The Cwm Clydach National Nature Reserve in southeast Wales

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