Handheld electronic games are interactive electronic games , often miniaturized versions of video games , that are played on portable handheld devices , known as handheld game consoles , whose controls, display and speakers are all part of a single unit. Rather than a general-purpose screen made up of a grid of small pixels , they usually have custom displays designed to play one game. This simplicity means they can be made as small as a smartwatch , and sometimes are. The visual output of these games can range from a few small light bulbs or LED lights to calculator-like alphanumerical screens; later these were mostly displaced by liquid crystal and vacuum fluorescent display screens with detailed images and in the case of VFD games, color. Handhelds' popularity was at its peak from the late 1970s into the early 1990s before declining. They are the precursors to the handheld game console .
85-424: Early handheld games used simple mechanisms to interact with players, often limited to illuminated buttons and sound effects. Early handheld games include Mattel Auto Race (1976) and Mattel Electronic Football (1977), which have simple red- LED displays; gameplay involves pressing buttons to move a car or quarterback icon (represented by a bright dot) to avoid obstacles (represented by less bright dots). In 1978
170-559: A circuit board that would fit into a compact package. Klose and his manager Richard Cheng approached the Microelectronics Division of Rockwell International , a leader in designing handheld calculator chips, to supply Mattel with the hardware and provide technical support. Mark Lesser, a circuit design engineer at Rockwell International, modified the B5000 calculator chip, adding a display driver multiplexing scheme to
255-936: A 1,300 m (14,000 sq ft) collector in Coimbatore , India, used for drying marigolds. Solar distillation can be used to make saline or brackish water potable. The first recorded instance of this was by 16th-century Arab alchemists. A large-scale solar distillation project was first constructed in 1872 in the Chilean mining town of Las Salinas. The plant, which had solar collection area of 4,700 m (51,000 sq ft), could produce up to 22,700 L (5,000 imp gal; 6,000 US gal) per day and operate for 40 years. Individual still designs include single-slope, double-slope (or greenhouse type), vertical, conical, inverted absorber, multi-wick, and multiple effect. These stills can operate in passive, active, or hybrid modes. Double-slope stills are
340-535: A conventional steam-generator to produce superheated steam for a turbine/generator as used in any conventional coal, oil, or nuclear power plant. A 100-megawatt turbine would need a tank about 9.1 metres (30 ft) tall and 24 metres (79 ft) in diameter to drive it for four hours by this design. Several parabolic trough power plants in Spain and solar power tower developer SolarReserve use this thermal energy storage concept. The Solana Generating Station in
425-634: A cooking container. These cookers reach temperatures of 315 °C (599 °F) and above but require direct light to function properly and must be repositioned to track the Sun. Solar concentrating technologies such as parabolic dish, trough and Scheffler reflectors can provide process heat for commercial and industrial applications. The first commercial system was the Solar Total Energy Project (STEP) in Shenandoah, Georgia, US where
510-473: A digital time display in the corner of the screen. For later, more complicated Game & Watch games, Yokoi invented a cross shaped directional pad or "D-pad" for control of on-screen characters. Yokoi also included his directional pad on the Famicom game console's controllers, and the cross-shaped thumb controller soon became standard on game console controllers and ubiquitous across the video game industry as
595-494: A field of 114 parabolic dishes provided 50% of the process heating, air conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing factory. This grid-connected cogeneration system provided 400 kW of electricity plus thermal energy in the form of 401 kW steam and 468 kW chilled water and had a one-hour peak load thermal storage. Evaporation ponds are shallow pools that concentrate dissolved solids through evaporation . The use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from seawater
680-475: A full-scale steam engine powered by low-pressure water, enabling him to patent the entire solar engine system by 1912. Shuman built the world's first solar thermal power station in Maadi , Egypt , between 1912 and 1913. His plant used parabolic troughs to power a 45–52 kilowatts (60–70 hp ) engine that pumped more than 22,000 litres (4,800 imp gal; 5,800 US gal) of water per minute from
765-417: A game—with no overlap. The illusion of movement is created by sequentially flashing objects between their possible states. Backgrounds for these games are static drawings, layered behind the "moving" graphics, which are transparent when not in use. Due to these limitations, the gameplay of early LCD games was often even cruder than that of their LED predecessors. Some of the more well-known handheld games of
850-415: A handheld electronic game using individual display segments as blips that would move on the display. He designed the gameplay for Mattel Auto Race , inspired by auto racing games found in video arcades in the 1970s. He built a proof of concept with a blip moving on an LED display without using a microprocessor to get approval from Mattel for further development. He then looked for a manufacturer to provide
935-564: A high altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water cycle . The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anticyclones . Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 °C. By photosynthesis , green plants convert solar energy into chemically stored energy, which produces food, wood and
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#17327944559151020-572: A large area of sunlight to a hot spot, often to drive a steam turbine . Photovoltaics (PV) were initially solely used as a source of electricity for small and medium-sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to remote homes powered by an off-grid rooftop PV system. Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. Since then, as the cost of solar panels has fallen, grid-connected solar PV systems ' capacity and production has doubled about every three years . Three-quarters of new generation capacity
1105-435: A new Mattel Electronics Division in 1978, which for a time was extremely profitable. Mattel pioneered the category of handheld electronic video games when it released Auto Race in 1976. It was the first in a line of sports handhelds including Football , Baseball , Basketball , Soccer , and Hockey , as well as non-sports games. Auto Race was reworked into Missile Attack , also released in 1976. NBC refused to air
1190-538: A portion of this energy. Use of solar for heating can roughly be divided into passive solar concepts and active solar concepts, depending on whether active elements such as sun tracking and solar concentrator optics are used. Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat—heat from the Sun in the case of solar energy. Common thermal mass materials include stone, cement, and water. Historically they have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during
1275-512: A reference to the energy retained by storing heat before turning it into electricity, versus converting heat directly into electricity. The molten salt mixtures vary. The most extended mixture contains sodium nitrate , potassium nitrate and calcium nitrate . It is non-flammable and non-toxic, and has already been used in the chemical and metals industries as a heat-transport fluid. Hence, experience with such systems exists in non-solar applications. The salt melts at 131 °C (268 °F). It
1360-475: A replacement for the joystick. During the 1980s, LCDs became inexpensive and largely replaced LED displays in handheld games. The use of custom images in LCD and VFD games allows for greater detail and eliminates the blocky, pixelated look of console screens, but not without drawbacks. All graphics are fixed in place, requiring every possible location and state of game objects to be preset—often visible when resetting
1445-412: A small part in the near-ultraviolet . Most of the world's population live in areas with insolation levels of 150–300 watts/m , or 3.5–7.0 kWh /m per day. Solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth's land surface, oceans – which cover about 71% of the globe – and atmosphere. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric circulation or convection . When the air reaches
1530-488: A steam engine. In 1908 Shuman formed the Sun Power Company with the intent of building larger solar power plants. He, along with his technical advisor A.S.E. Ackermann and British physicist Sir Charles Vernon Boys , developed an improved system using mirrors to reflect solar energy upon collector boxes, increasing heating capacity to the extent that water could now be used instead of ether. Shuman then constructed
1615-442: A tenth of their electricity from solar, with China making up more than half of solar growth. Almost half the solar power installed in 2022 was mounted on rooftops . Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists;
1700-422: Is a biannual solar-powered car race, where teams from universities and enterprises compete over 3,021 kilometres (1,877 mi) across central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide . In 1987, when it was founded, the winner's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour (42 mph) and by 2007 the winner's average speed had improved to 90.87 kilometres per hour (56.46 mph). The North American Solar Challenge and
1785-439: Is a classic example of passive solar design. The most recent approaches to solar design use computer modeling tying together solar lighting , heating and ventilation systems in an integrated solar design package. Active solar equipment such as pumps, fans, and switchable windows can complement passive design and improve system performance. Urban heat islands (UHI) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than that of
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#17327944559151870-450: Is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building. As the chimney warms, the air inside is heated, causing an updraft that pulls air through the building. Performance can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass materials in a way that mimics greenhouses. Deciduous trees and plants have been promoted as a means of controlling solar heating and cooling. When planted on
1955-441: Is challenging; a feasible alternative is hydrogen production from protons, though use of water as the source of electrons (as plants do) requires mastering the multielectron oxidation of two water molecules to molecular oxygen. Some have envisaged working solar fuel plants in coastal metropolitan areas by 2050 – the splitting of seawater providing hydrogen to be run through adjacent fuel-cell electric power plants and
2040-507: Is considered destroyed and the game over. The 1980 Flash Gordon handheld is the same game with a different science fiction license, but was not released. In 1980, a reskinned Auto Race was released as Mattel Ski Slalom outside the US. The four gears are labeled SLALOM , BRONZE , SILVER , and GOLD . In 1983, a clone of Auto Race developed by the Ministry of Electronic Industry of
2125-763: Is generally limited to the toy market as the surface-area to payload-weight ratio is relatively high. The Squad Solar is a Neighborhood Electric Vehicle that has a solar roof and can be plugged into a normal 120 volt outlet to be charged. Solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical reactions. These processes offset energy that would otherwise come from a fossil fuel source and can also convert solar energy into storable and transportable fuels. Solar induced chemical reactions can be divided into thermochemical or photochemical . A variety of fuels can be produced by artificial photosynthesis . The multielectron catalytic chemistry involved in making carbon-based fuels (such as methanol ) from reduction of carbon dioxide
2210-399: Is kept liquid at 288 °C (550 °F) in an insulated "cold" storage tank. The liquid salt is pumped through panels in a solar collector where the focused irradiance heats it to 566 °C (1,051 °F). It is then sent to a hot storage tank. This is so well insulated that the thermal energy can be usefully stored for up to a week. When electricity is needed, the hot salt is pumped to
2295-588: Is one of the oldest applications of solar energy. Modern uses include concentrating brine solutions used in leach mining and removing dissolved solids from waste streams. Clothes lines , clotheshorses , and clothes racks dry clothes through evaporation by wind and sunlight without consuming electricity or gas. In some states of the United States legislation protects the "right to dry" clothes. Unglazed transpired collectors (UTC) are perforated sun-facing walls used for preheating ventilation air. UTCs can raise
2380-576: Is recommended by the World Health Organization as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage. Over two million people in developing countries use this method for their daily drinking water. Solar energy may be used in a water stabilization pond to treat waste water without chemicals or electricity. A further environmental advantage is that algae grow in such ponds and consume carbon dioxide in photosynthesis, although algae may produce toxic chemicals that make
2465-418: Is represented by a bright blip (a vertical dash sign) on the bottom of the screen. The player must make it to the top of the screen 4 times (4 laps) to win, but, while making it towards the top, the player must swerve past other cars using the switch at the bottom of the system to toggle among three lanes. If hit by a car, the player's vehicle keeps moving back towards the bottom of the screen until it gets out of
2550-489: Is solar, with both millions of rooftop installations and gigawatt-scale photovoltaic power stations continuing to be built. In 2023, solar power generated 5.5% (1,631 TWh) of global electricity and over 1% of primary energy , adding twice as much new electricity as coal. Along with onshore wind power , utility-scale solar is the source with the cheapest levelised cost of electricity for new installations in most countries. As of 2023, 33 countries generated more than
2635-513: Is the box cooker first built by Horace de Saussure in 1767. A basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent lid. It can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 90–150 °C (194–302 °F). Panel cookers use a reflective panel to direct sunlight onto an insulated container and reach temperatures comparable to box cookers. Reflector cookers use various concentrating geometries (dish, trough, Fresnel mirrors) to focus light on
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2720-420: Is the dominant application of solar hot water with an installed capacity of 18 GW th as of 2005. In the United States, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems account for 30% (4.65 EJ/yr) of the energy used in commercial buildings and nearly 50% (10.1 EJ/yr) of the energy used in residential buildings. Solar heating, cooling and ventilation technologies can be used to offset
2805-726: The Gossamer Penguin made the first piloted flights powered solely by photovoltaics. This was quickly followed by the Solar Challenger which crossed the English Channel in July 1981. In 1990 Eric Scott Raymond in 21 hops flew from California to North Carolina using solar power. Developments then turned back to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) with the Pathfinder (1997) and subsequent designs, culminating in
2890-460: The Helios which set the altitude record for a non-rocket-propelled aircraft at 29,524 metres (96,864 ft) in 2001. The Zephyr , developed by BAE Systems , is the latest in a line of record-breaking solar aircraft, making a 54-hour flight in 2007, and month-long flights were envisioned by 2010. From March 2015 to July 2016, Solar Impulse , an electric aircraft , successfully circumnavigated
2975-625: The Milton Bradley Company entered the handheld market with Simon , a simple color-and-sound-matching game. Simon had no dedicated display, but featured four colored, lighted buttons; the original version was large enough to be used as a tabletop game or a handheld; later versions became increasingly smaller. The same year, Parker Brothers also released Merlin , a more sophisticated handheld which could play six different games using an array of 11 buttons with integrated LEDs. Despite their relative simplicity, each of these early games
3060-606: The Missile Attack commercial because of the dark theme of the game, and Mattel removed it from the market. It was reintroduced in 1978 based on the Battlestar Galactica TV series as Battlestar Galactica Space Alert . The player remains at the bottom of the playfield, and a fire button is used to shoot and destroy adversaries. If one reaches the center-bottom space on the playing field, the Galactica
3145-488: The Nile River to adjacent cotton fields. Although the outbreak of World War I and the discovery of cheap oil in the 1930s discouraged the advancement of solar energy, Shuman's vision, and basic design were resurrected in the 1970s with a new wave of interest in solar thermal energy. In 1916 Shuman was quoted in the media advocating solar energy's utilization, saying: We have proved the commercial profit of sun power in
3230-462: The biomass from which fossil fuels are derived. The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 122 PW·year = 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002 (2019), this was more energy in one hour (one hour and 25 minutes) than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The potential solar energy that could be used by humans differs from
3315-461: The horror -themed game Terror House , featured two LCD panels , one stacked on the other, for an early 3D effect . In 1983, Takara Tomy 's Tomytronic 3D series simulated 3D by having two LED panels that were lit by external light through a window on top of the device, making it the first dedicated home video 3D hardware. The LCD Solarpower series are handheld electronic games powered by solar energy made by Bandai in 1982. The games in
3400-412: The 1970s, known mostly for Barbie dolls and Hot Wheels , was at first skeptical of products based on electronics, especially at what was considered an expensive retail price at the time: US$ 24.99 (equivalent to $ 130 in 2023). The success of Auto Race convinced Mattel to proceed with the development of Mattel Football which was often sold out and in short supply, and this led to the creation of
3485-554: The Cerro Dominador plant is capable of generating around 110 MW of power. The plant has an advanced storage system enabling it to generate electricity for up to 17.5 hours without direct solar radiation, which allows it to provide a stable electricity supply without interruptions if required. The Project secured up to 950 GW·h per year sale. Another project is the María Elena plant is a 400 MW thermo-solar complex in
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3570-482: The Double Panel series feature two LCD panels stacked on top of each other. This allows these games to progress in 2 stages for more variation in game play. It comprises the following games: First series: Second series (Double Panel): Other handheld games were built as flipcases and had two or even three LCDs with different foreground and background scenes, offering some variety in the gameplay. Despite
3655-504: The Equator-facing side of a building because they will interfere with winter solar availability. They can, however, be used on the east and west sides to provide a degree of summer shading without appreciably affecting winter solar gain . Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying, and pasteurization . They can be grouped into three broad categories: box cookers, panel cookers, and reflector cookers. The simplest solar cooker
3740-533: The LCD era are the Game & Watch series by Nintendo and the games by Tiger Electronics , and many titles from other companies were also popular, especially conversions of arcade games . New games are still being made, but most are based on relatively simple card and board games . In 1982, the Bandai LCD Solarpower series were the first solar-powered gaming devices. Some of its games, such as
3825-540: The Roman emperor Tiberius . The first modern greenhouses were built in Europe in the 16th century to keep exotic plants brought back from explorations abroad. Greenhouses remain an important part of horticulture today. Plastic transparent materials have also been used to similar effect in polytunnels and row covers . Development of a solar-powered car has been an engineering goal since the 1980s. The World Solar Challenge
3910-697: The Soviet Union was released as Elektronika IER-01 . Solar energy Solar energy is the radiant energy from the Sun 's light and heat , which can be harnessed using a range of technologies such as solar electricity , solar thermal energy (including solar water heating ) and solar architecture . It is an essential source of renewable energy , and its technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques include
3995-499: The Sun. Active solar techniques use photovoltaics, concentrated solar power , solar thermal collectors , pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful output. Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun. Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce
4080-462: The U.S. has six hours of storage by molten salt. In Chile, The Cerro Dominador power plant has a 110 MW solar-thermal tower, the heat is transferred to molten salts . The molten salts then transfer their heat in a heat exchanger to water, generating superheated steam, which feeds a turbine that transforms the kinetic energy of the steam into electric energy using the Rankine cycle . In this way,
4165-657: The Universal Exposition in Paris, Augustin Mouchot successfully demonstrated a solar steam engine but could not continue development because of cheap coal and other factors. In 1897, Frank Shuman , a US inventor, engineer and solar energy pioneer built a small demonstration solar engine that worked by reflecting solar energy onto square boxes filled with ether, which has a lower boiling point than water and were fitted internally with black pipes which in turn powered
4250-420: The amount of solar energy present near the surface of the planet because factors such as geography, time variation, cloud cover, and the land available to humans limit the amount of solar energy that we can acquire. In 2021, Carbon Tracker Initiative estimated the land area needed to generate all our energy from solar alone was 450,000 km — or about the same as the area of Sweden , or the area of Morocco , or
4335-596: The area of California (0.3% of the Earth's total land area). Solar technologies are categorized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight and enable solar energy to be harnessed at different levels around the world, mostly depending on the distance from the Equator. Although solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends, all types of renewable energy, other than geothermal power and tidal power , are derived either directly or indirectly from
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#17327944559154420-429: The buttons. Yokoi then thought of an idea for a watch that doubled as a miniature game machine for killing time, a game watch . Starting in 1980, Nintendo began to release a series of electronic games designed by Yokoi called the Game & Watch games. Taking advantage of the technology used in the credit-card-sized calculators that had appeared on the market, Yokoi designed the series of LCD-based games to include
4505-545: The capture of solar energy to optimize the productivity of plants. Techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row orientation, staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop yields. While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resource, the exceptions highlight the importance of solar energy to agriculture. During the short growing seasons of the Little Ice Age , French and English farmers employed fruit walls to maximize
4590-551: The collection of solar energy. These walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by keeping plants warm. Early fruit walls were built perpendicular to the ground and facing south, but over time, sloping walls were developed to make better use of sunlight. In 1699, Nicolas Fatio de Duillier even suggested using a tracking mechanism which could pivot to follow the Sun. Applications of solar energy in agriculture aside from growing crops include pumping water, drying crops, brooding chicks and drying chicken manure. More recently
4675-434: The costs of mitigating global warming .... these advantages are global". The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation ( insolation ) at the upper atmosphere . Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest, 122 PW, is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with
4760-404: The current game progress and high scores when the system is turned off. Many of these handhelds with a dozen such games are marketed as having hundreds or even thousands of games (e.g. "9999 in 1"), though the vast majority are just different speed and difficulty settings. The most basic can now be sold as low as $ 1. At the lowest end of handheld game sophistication, there is also the "avoid/catch
4845-479: The day and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night. However, they can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as well. The size and placement of thermal mass depend on several factors such as climate, daylighting, and shading conditions. When duly incorporated, thermal mass maintains space temperatures in a comfortable range and reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling equipment. A solar chimney (or thermal chimney, in this context)
4930-580: The early 1990s, includes games using a 10 × 20 block grid as a crude, low resolution dot matrix screen. Such devices often have many variations of Tetris and sometimes even other kinds of games like racing , Breakout or even shoot 'em up , such as those resembling Galaga or Battle City , where one block projects blocks at the "enemy" blocks. The most advanced of these designs usually have 26 distinct games sorted in alphabetical letters and feature multi-channel sound, voice synthesis or digital sounds samples, and internal CMOS memory which can save
5015-413: The falling objects" game. These games are controlled with 2 movement buttons, and sport a screen with a column of player positions, and rows of projectiles to animate towards the player. The player and projectiles could be any picture, from tanks dodging missiles to a dog catching sausages. XGP Mattel Auto Race Mattel Electronics Auto Race was released in 1976 by Mattel Electronics as
5100-458: The fine glass surfaces of solar power plants. Metal grills would allow a high percentage of sunlight to enter the mirrors and solar panels while also preventing most damage. Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history. Advanced solar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by the Greeks and Chinese , who oriented their buildings toward
5185-435: The first handheld electronic game to use only solid-state electronics ; it has no mechanical elements except the controls and on/off switch. Using hardware designed for calculators and powered by a nine-volt battery , the cars are represented by red LEDs on a playfield which covers only a small portion of the case. The audio consists of beeps. George J. Klose based the game on 1970s racing arcade video games and designed
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#17327944559155270-728: The first solar-powered crossing of the Pacific Ocean, and the Sun21 catamaran made the first solar-powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 2006–2007. There were plans to circumnavigate the globe in 2010. In 1974, the unmanned AstroFlight Sunrise airplane made the first solar flight. On 29 April 1979, the Solar Riser made the first flight in a solar-powered, fully controlled, man-carrying flying machine, reaching an altitude of 40 ft (12 m). In 1980,
5355-476: The globe. It is a single-seat plane powered by solar cells and capable of taking off under its own power. The design allows the aircraft to remain airborne for several days. A solar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air. As sunlight shines on the balloon, the air inside is heated and expands, causing an upward buoyancy force, much like an artificially heated hot air balloon . Some solar balloons are large enough for human flight, but usage
5440-550: The hardware and a custom sound driver for a piezo-ceramic speaker, resulting in the B6000 chip used in Auto Race . Sound is produced by toggling the speaker in embedded timing loops from within the program itself. Without prior programming experience, Lesser wrote the game in assembly language for the 512 bytes of ROM . He spent eighteen months getting the code to fit. Sales of Mattel Auto Race exceeded expectations. Mattel in
5525-436: The hardware, with some hardware features added by Mark Lesser who also wrote the 512 bytes of program code. From a top-down perspective, the player controls a car on a three-lane track and moves between them with a switch. Opponent vehicles move toward the player, in an effect similar to vertical scrolling , and the player must avoid them. A second control shifts gears from 1-4, with the speed increasing for each. Auto Race
5610-581: The incoming air temperature up to 22 °C (40 °F) and deliver outlet temperatures of 45–60 °C (113–140 °F). The short payback period of transpired collectors (3 to 12 years) makes them a more cost-effective alternative than glazed collection systems. As of 2003, over 80 systems with a combined collector area of 35,000 square metres (380,000 sq ft) had been installed worldwide, including an 860 m (9,300 sq ft) collector in Costa Rica used for drying coffee beans and
5695-561: The increasing sophistication of handheld consoles such as the Nintendo Switch , dedicated handhelds continue to find a niche. Among technophilic gamer subcultures like Akiba-kei , unique control schemes like that of the 2008 Tuttuki Bako have been proven salable due to novelty, but dedicated handhelds such as this are uncommon. Adult fads such as blackjack , poker , and Sudoku also spawn dozens of original and knockoff handheld games. The Chinese/Russian Brick Game , popular in
5780-512: The most developed are the parabolic trough, the solar tower collectors, the concentrating linear Fresnel reflector, and the Stirling dish. Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light. In all of these systems, a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage. Designs need to account for the risk of a dust storm , hail , or another extreme weather event that can damage
5865-422: The most economical for decentralized domestic purposes, while active multiple effect units are more suitable for large-scale applications. Solar water disinfection (SODIS) involves exposing water-filled plastic polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles to sunlight for several hours. Exposure times vary depending on weather and climate from a minimum of six hours to two days during fully overcast conditions. It
5950-508: The need for alternative resources and are generally considered demand-side technologies. In 2000, the United Nations Development Programme , UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, and World Energy Council published an estimate of the potential solar energy that could be used by humans each year. This took into account factors such as insolation, cloud cover, and the land that is usable by humans. It
6035-471: The northern Chilean region of Antofagasta employing molten salt technology. Solar power , also known as solar electricity, is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity , either directly using photovoltaics (PV) or indirectly using concentrated solar power . Solar panels use the photovoltaic effect to convert light into an electric current . Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and solar tracking systems to focus
6120-447: The other car's way. The goal is to beat the game with the shortest time possible before the 99 seconds given (as high as the two-digit timer can show) are up. The player's car has four gears and the higher the gear, the faster the other cars come at it. The manual assigns ratings to completion times: George J. Klose, a product development engineer at Mattel, came up with the concept of repurposing standard calculator hardware to create
6205-571: The planned South African Solar Challenge are comparable competitions that reflect an international interest in the engineering and development of solar powered vehicles. Some vehicles use solar panels for auxiliary power, such as for air conditioning, to keep the interior cool, thus reducing fuel consumption. In 1975, the first practical solar boat was constructed in England. By 1995, passenger boats incorporating PV panels began appearing and are now used extensively. In 1996, Kenichi Horie made
6290-561: The pure water by-product going directly into the municipal water system. In addition, chemical energy storage is another solution to solar energy storage. Hydrogen production technologies have been a significant area of solar chemical research since the 1970s. Aside from electrolysis driven by photovoltaic or photochemical cells, several thermochemical processes have also been explored. One such route uses concentrators to split water into oxygen and hydrogen at high temperatures (2,300–2,600 °C or 4,200–4,700 °F). Another approach uses
6375-414: The south to provide light and warmth. The common features of passive solar architecture are orientation relative to the Sun, compact proportion (a low surface area to volume ratio), selective shading (overhangs) and thermal mass . When these features are tailored to the local climate and environment, they can produce well-lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range. Socrates ' Megaron House
6460-477: The southern side of a building in the northern hemisphere or the northern side in the southern hemisphere, their leaves provide shade during the summer, while the bare limbs allow light to pass during the winter. Since bare, leafless trees shade 1/3 to 1/2 of incident solar radiation, there is a balance between the benefits of summer shading and the corresponding loss of winter heating. In climates with significant heating loads, deciduous trees should not be planted on
6545-861: The surrounding environment. The higher temperatures result from increased absorption of solar energy by urban materials such as asphalt and concrete, which have lower albedos and higher heat capacities than those in the natural environment. A straightforward method of counteracting the UHI effect is to paint buildings and roads white and to plant trees in the area. Using these methods, a hypothetical "cool communities" program in Los Angeles has projected that urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3 °C at an estimated cost of US$ 1 billion, giving estimated total annual benefits of US$ 530 million from reduced air-conditioning costs and healthcare savings. Agriculture and horticulture seek to optimize
6630-409: The technology has been embraced by vintners , who use the energy generated by solar panels to power grape presses. Greenhouses convert solar light to heat, enabling year-round production and the growth (in enclosed environments) of specialty crops and other plants not naturally suited to the local climate. Primitive greenhouses were first used during Roman times to produce cucumbers year-round for
6715-414: The total installed capacity of solar hot water systems was approximately 436 thermal gigawatt (GW th ), and China is the world leader in their deployment with 309 GW th installed, taken up 71% of the market. Israel and Cyprus are the per capita leaders in the use of solar hot water systems with over 90% of homes using them. In the United States, Canada, and Australia, heating swimming pools
6800-699: The tropics and have more particularly proved that after our stores of oil and coal are exhausted the human race can receive unlimited power from the rays of the Sun. Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. In middle geographical latitudes (between 40 degrees north and 40 degrees south), 60 to 70% of the domestic hot water use, with water temperatures up to 60 °C (140 °F), can be provided by solar heating systems. The most common types of solar water heaters are evacuated tube collectors (44%) and glazed flat plate collectors (34%) generally used for domestic hot water; and unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used mainly to heat swimming pools. As of 2015,
6885-765: The use of photovoltaic systems , concentrated solar power , and solar water heating to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include designing a building for better daylighting , selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, and organize spaces that naturally circulate air . In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries' energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible, and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower
6970-456: The water unusable. Molten salt can be employed as a thermal energy storage method to retain thermal energy collected by a solar tower or solar trough of a concentrated solar power plant so that it can be used to generate electricity in bad weather or at night. It was demonstrated in the Solar Two project from 1995 to 1999. The system is predicted to have an annual efficiency of 99%,
7055-517: Was followed by other successful handheld sports games from Mattel, including Football and Baseball which were both programmed by Lesser. The design was tweaked into multiple other handhelds, including Missile Attack (1976), which became Battlestar Galactica Space Alert (1978) as a tie-in with the Battlestar Galactica TV series, and Ski Slalom (1980). Auto Race was cloned in the Soviet Union as Elektronika IER-01 . The player's car
7140-462: Was highly successful. The initial success of Mattel and Parker Brothers' entries spawned a wave of similar handheld devices which were released through the early 1980s. Notable among these were a series of popular 2-player "head-to-head" games from Coleco . Other games were miniaturized versions of popular arcade video games. In 1979, Gunpei Yokoi , traveling on a bullet train , saw a bored businessman playing with an LCD calculator by pressing
7225-461: Was stated that solar energy has a global potential of 1,600 to 49,800 exajoules (4.4 × 10 to 1.4 × 10 kWh) per year (see table below) . Quantitative relation of global solar potential vs. the world's primary energy consumption : Source: United Nations Development Programme – World Energy Assessment (2000) Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space heating, space cooling and process heat generation. In 1878, at
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