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64-584: Defunct Defunct According to the dichotomy, social ties can be categorized, on one hand, as belonging to personal social interactions , and the roles, values, and beliefs based on such interactions ( Gemeinschaft , German, commonly translated as " community "), or on the other hand as belonging to indirect interactions, impersonal roles, formal values, and beliefs based on such interactions ( Gesellschaft , German, commonly translated as society as in association, corporation, including company, modern state and academia). The Gemeinschaft–Gesellschaft dichotomy

128-413: A "verdict for mankind." He called the committee a voice that was created to plead the justice of America's cause before the jury of public opinion. Creel also refers to the committee as a "vast enterprise in salesmanship" and "the world's greatest adventure in advertising." The committee's message resonated deep within every American community and served as an organization that was responsible for carrying

192-520: A Brit at heart. Now you've proved it!' Propaganda was used in the war, like other wars, with the truth suffering. Propaganda ensured that the people learned only what their governments wanted them to know. The lengths to which governments would go to try to blacken the enemy's name reached a new level during the war. To ensure that everybody thought as the government wanted, all forms of information were controlled. Newspapers were expected to print what governments wanted readers to read. That would appear to be

256-510: A blueprint for world peace to be used for peace negotiations after the war. Wilson's points inspired audiences around the world and greatly strengthened the belief that Britain, France, and America were fighting for noble goals. The 1915 film The German Side of the War was one of the only American films to show the German perspective of the war . At the theater, lines stretched around the block;

320-576: A devil figure. They would all depict the war as ‘patriotic’, with one poster saying that the war was Russia’s second ‘patriotic war’, the first being against Napoleon. Russian press operating in the Caucasus had been reporting on a "really intolerable situation" in Anatolia since before the formal commencement of hostilities with the Ottoman Empire. Propaganda was one of the tools employed by

384-417: A form of censorship , but the newspapers of Britain, which were effectively controlled by the media barons of the time, were happy to follow and printed headlines that were designed to stir up emotions, regardless of whether or not they were accurate. The most infamous headlines included "Belgium child's hands cut off by Germans" and "Germans crucify Canadian officer". Patriotism and nationalism were two of

448-512: A high degree of uniformity in wartime reporting. Contact between journalists and fighting troops was prohibited, and journalists spoke only to high-ranking officers and commanders. Both sides initially prohibited any photography or filming. The primary visual representation relied on war painting, but the Germans used some heavily-censored filmed newsreels. The French preferred painting over photography, but some parties used photographs to document

512-405: A language or kinship group, a social institution or organization, an economic class, a nation, or gender. Social relations are derived from human behavioral ecology , and, as an aggregate, form a coherent social structure whose constituent parts are best understood relative to each other and to the social ecosystem as a whole . Early inquiries into the nature of social relations featured in

576-626: A meaning and purpose. Then there are social behaviors , or social actions, which address (directly or indirectly) other people, which solicit a response from another agent. Next are social contacts , a pair of social actions, which form the beginning of social interactions which metadata is a big contribution.Symbols define social relationships. Without symbols, our social life would be no more sophisticated than that of animals. For example, without symbols, people would have no aunts or uncles, employers or teachers—or even brothers and sisters. In sum, symbolic interactionists analyze how social life depends on

640-407: A nation of 103 million people. The speakers attended training sessions through local universities and were given pamphlets and speaking tips on a wide variety of topics, such as buying Liberty bonds , registering for the draft , rationing food, recruiting unskilled workers for munitions jobs, and supporting Red Cross programs. Historians were assigned to write pamphlets and in-depth histories of

704-516: A way to target the public and alter their opinion. According to Eberhard Demm and Christopher H. Sterling: Propaganda could be used to arouse hatred of the foe, warn of the consequences of defeat, and idealize one's own war aims in order to mobilize a nation, maintain its morale, and make it fight to the end. It could explain setbacks by blaming scapegoats such as war profiteers, hoarders, defeatists, dissenters, pacifists, left-wing socialists, spies, shirkers, strikers, and sometimes enemy aliens so that

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768-403: Is reflected in a culture's kinship terminology , with the default mother-child relation emerging as part of the embryological process. According to Piotr Sztompka , forms of relation and interaction in sociology and anthropology may be described as follows: first and most basic are animal-like behaviors , i.e. various physical movements of the body. Then there are actions —movements with

832-484: Is revered and saintly even though she has been savagely raped by the Germans and left for dead. The "immoral woman" archetype also appears in Dana Gatlin 's New York Stuff . Gatlin describes New York as "too engrossed with her materialistic provender, the things which can be judged in terms of dollars and cents, which can be bought and sold; the things which, in the destroyed or partially destroyed cities of Europe,

896-471: Is the basis for Weber's three-component theory of stratification . Having put forward his conception of the Gemeinschaft – Gesellschaft dichotomy, Tönnies was drawn into a sharp polemic with Émile Durkheim . In a review of Tönnies's book in 1889, Durkheim interpreted Gemeinschaft as having mechanical solidarity , and Gesellschaft as having organic solidarity , reproaching Tönnies for considering

960-437: The diplomatic history of World War I and was designed to build support for the cause or to undermine support for the enemy. Eberhard Demm and Christopher H. Sterling, state: Nonmilitary propaganda into neutral countries war was designed to build support for the cause or to undermine support for the enemy. Wartime diplomacy focused on five issues: propaganda campaigns to shape news reports and commentary; defining and redefining

1024-452: The philosophy of law . And it has been argued that he derived both categories from Hobbes's concepts of "concord" and "union". The second edition, published in 1912, of the work in which Tönnies further promoted the concepts turned out to be an unexpected but lasting success after the first edition was published in 1887 with the subtitle "Treatise on Communism and Socialism as Empirical Patterns of Culture". Seven more German editions followed,

1088-615: The " Fourteen Points ," which he said that the United States would fight to defend. Aside from the restoration of freedom in Europe in countries that were suppressed by the power of Germany , Wilson's Fourteen Points called for transparency regarding discussion of diplomatic matters, the free navigation of the seas in peace and in war, and equal trade conditions among all nations. The Fourteen Points became very popular across Europe and motivated German socialists especially. It served as

1152-735: The Armenians of the Caucasus to advance the Armenian revolutionary movement . The effort to recruit Ottoman Armenians to enlist in the Russian army was supported by Hampartsum Arakelyan, editor of Mshak , a leading Armenian language circular in the Caucasus region. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1878 that set the stage for World War I, Mshak was especially active in publishing pro-Russian propaganda. According to Tasnapetean

1216-546: The British press was demanding his execution. He died in exile in 1941, and his former enemies had moderated their criticism toward him and instead turned the hatred against Hitler. The major foreign ministries prepared propaganda designed to reach public opinion and elite opinion in other countries, especially the neutral powers. For example, the British were especially effective in turning American opinion against Germany before 1917. Propaganda thus became an integral part of

1280-561: The United States multiple times with patriotic information about how the individual could contribute to the war effort. The CPI also worked with the post office to censor seditious counter propaganda. Creel set up divisions in his new agency to produce and to distribute innumerable copies of pamphlets, newspaper releases, magazine advertisements, films, school campaigns, and the speeches of the Four Minute Men . The CPI created colourful posters that appeared in every store window to catch

1344-419: The actions included the use of forbidden weapons, the demolition of ancient libraries and cathedrals, and the rape and the torture of civilians. Graphic illustrations, accompanied by first-hand testimonies that described the crimes as savagely unjust, were compelling reminders to justify the war. Other forms of atrocity propaganda depicted the alternative to war to involve German occupation and domination, which

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1408-588: The administration, including implementing a policy of press censorship, which was carried out under Walter Nicolai . Censorship regulations were put in place in Berlin, with the War Press Office fully controlled by the Army High Command. Journalists were allowed to report from the front only if they were experienced officers who had "recognized patriotic views". Briefings to the press created

1472-497: The aftermath of damage that had been inflicted on cities by artillery. However, photographs of battle scenes were re-enactments by necessity. When World War I started, the United States had become a leader in the art of filmmaking and the new profession of commercial advertising . Such newly-discovered technologies played an instrumental role in the shaping of the American mind and the altering of public opinion into supporting

1536-507: The attention of passers-by for a few seconds. Cinemas were widely attended, and the CPI trained thousands of volunteer speakers to make patriotic appeals during four-minute breaks, which were needed to change reels. They also spoke at churches, lodges, fraternal organizations, labour unions, and even logging camps. Creel boasted that in 18 months, his 75,000 volunteers had delivered over 7.5 million four-minute orations to over 300 million listeners in

1600-471: The best example of which is a commercial contract. To emphasize the fluidity and amorphousness of the relationship between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft , Weber modified the terms in German to Vergemeinschaftung , and Vergesellschaftung , which are the gerund forms of the German words. Weber's distinction between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft is highlighted in the essay "Classes, Stände, Parties", which

1664-537: The causes of the European war. After World War I started, both sides of the conflict used propaganda to shape international opinion. Thus, propaganda become a weapon to influence countries. As their armies began to clash, the opposing governments engaged in a media battle attempting to avoid blame for causing the war and casting blame on other countries by the publication of carefully-selected documents, which basically consisted of diplomatic exchanges. The Germans were

1728-402: The communal level. The committee, headed by the former investigative journalist George Creel , emphasized the message that America's involvement in the war was entirely necessary for achieving the salvation of Europe from the German and enemy forces. In his book titled How we Advertised America , Creel states that the committee was called into existence to make World War I a fight that would be

1792-446: The division of labor and that Durkheim's whole sociology was a modification of Spencer's (who had his own dichotomy between what he called the "militant society" and the "industrial society"). In World War I propaganda self-sacrificing (virtuous) women were portrayed as the heart of the Gemeinschaft by providing the model for the dutiful wartime home maker supporting the war effort by sending their men (husbands and sons) to serve in

1856-470: The domestic sphere in wartime became seen as an inexcusable war crime. In the Ottoman Empire , the United States, and other countries, women were encouraged to enter the workforce since the number of men kept shrinking during the war. The Ottoman government already had a system that incorporated the participation of women in governmental committees that had established in 1912 and 1913. Thus, when

1920-571: The era differed by country. British propaganda often promoted the idea that women and their families were threatened by the enemy, particularly the German Army . British propaganda played on the fears of the country's citizens by depicting the German Army as a ravenous force that horrified towns and cities, raped women and tore families apart. The terror ensued by the gendered propaganda influenced Britain's war policies, and violence against

1984-513: The executive bodies and ranks of the Dashnaktsutiun―were not psychologically or practically ready in 1915 to resort to general self-defense, let along a general uprising. They had, starting in 1912, elected to again appeal to international diplomacy instead of relying on their own armed struggle. The most influential man behind the propaganda in the United States was President Woodrow Wilson . In his famous January 1918 declaration, he outlined

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2048-570: The first to do so, and other major participants followed within days. The German White Book appeared on 4 August 1914. The first such book to come out, it contained 36 documents. In the German White Book , anything that could benefit the Russian position was redacted. Within a week, most other combatant countries had published their own book, each named with a different color name. France held off until 1 December 1914, when it finally published its Yellow Book . Other combatants in

2112-420: The full message of American ideals to every corner of the civilized globe. Creel and his committee used every possible mode to get their message across, including printed word, the spoken word, the motion picture, the telegraph, the poster, and the signboard. All forms of communication were put to use to justify the causes that compelled America to take arms. Creel set out systematically to reach every person in

2176-628: The globe. Wellington House was so secret that much of Parliament was in the dark. Wellington House had a staff of 54 people, which made it the largest British foreign propaganda organisation. From the Wellington House came to the publication The War Pictorial , which by December 1916 had reached a circulation of 500,000, covering 11 languages. The War Pictorial was deemed to have such a powerful effect on different masses that it could turn countries like China against Germany. Propaganda and its ideological impacts on women and family life in

2240-495: The horrors. Others were propaganda ploys to show one side as being reasonable and the other as obstinate. As soon as the war began, Britain cut Germany's undersea communication cables as a way to ensure that the Allies had a monopoly on the most expedient means of transmitting news from Europe to press outlets in the United States. That was a way to influence reporting of the war around the world and to gain sympathy and support from

2304-562: The intervening years had left the Armenians unprepared to confront the violence of the Armenian Genocide that was unleashed on them in 1915: ...it is evident that after the first few years of elation after the Ottoman Constitution, and despite the gradual deterioration of conditions after 1911, as well as the spread of Pan-Turanian thought and the efforts of the 'Turkji' movement, the Armenians of Turkey―including

2368-497: The last in 1935, and it became part of the general stock of ideas with which pre-1933 German intellectuals were quite familiar. The book sparked a revival of corporatist thinking, including the rise of neo-medievalism , the rise of support for guild socialism , and caused major changes in the field of sociology. The distinction between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft was a large part of the discussion and debate about what constitutes community, among heavily influenced social theorists in

2432-557: The late nineteenth and early twentieth century such as Georg Simmel , Émile Durkheim and Max Weber . The concepts Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft were also used by Max Weber in Economy and Society , which was first published in 1921. Weber wrote in direct response to Tönnies, and argued that Gemeinschaft is rooted in a "subjective feeling" that may be "affectual or traditional". Gesellschaft -based relationships, according to Weber, are rooted in "rational agreement by mutual consent",

2496-476: The most important themes of propaganda. In 1914, the British Army was made up of not only professional soldiers but also volunteers and so the government relied heavily on propaganda as a tool to justify the war to the public eye. It was used to promote recruitment into the armed forces and to convince civilians that if they joined, their sacrifices would be rewarded. One of the most impressionable images of

2560-430: The other nations. In 1914, a secret British organization, Wellington House , was set up and called for journalists and newspaper editors to write articles that sympathised with Britain as a way to counter statements that were made by the enemy. Wellington House implemented the action not only through favourable reports in the press of neutral countries but also by publishing its own newspapers, which were circulated around

2624-426: The public would not question the war itself or the existing social and political system. Propaganda by all sides presented a highly cleansed, partisan view of fighting. Censorship rules placed strict restrictions on frontline journalism and reportage, a process that continues to affect the historical record — for instance, possibly due to image concerns, there is no known visual evidence of American shotgun use during

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2688-543: The qualities of Gemeinschaft by artificially reforging group bonds and identities. Fredric Jameson highlights the ambivalent envy felt by those constructed by Gesellschaft for remaining enclaves of Gemeinschaft , even as they inevitably corrode their existence. Social interaction A social relation is the fundamental unit of analysis within the social sciences , and describes any voluntary or involuntary interpersonal relationship between two or more conspecifics within and/or between groups. The group can be

2752-414: The screenings were received with such enthusiasm that would-be moviegoers resorted to purchasing tickets from scalpers. Propaganda made American entry into the war possible, but many propagandists later confessed to fabricating atrocity propaganda . By the 1930s, Americans had grown resistant to atrocity stories. A 1940 study of American public opinion determined that the collective memory of World War I

2816-599: The second type of social organisation artificial and not expanding on the transition from the one type to the other. Durkheim stated that Tönnies's approach to understanding Gesellschaft was "completely ideological" but that "one cannot fail to recognize in this book truly forceful thinking and an uncommon power of organization." Tönnies did not agree with Durkheim's interpretation of his views, and in turn, when reviewing Durkheim's The Division of Labour in Society (1896), wrote that Durkheim failed to deal critically enough with

2880-426: The slogan "work, order, duty" over the enemy's "liberty, equality, fraternity." E). It explained that German victory would benefit all of mankind, freeing the seas for all nations, and enabling the downtrodden colonies of the Allies to liberate themselves. F). Germany needed land to expand , as an outlet for its surplus population, talent, organizing ability, financial capital, and manufacturing output. G). The riches of

2944-573: The text of Pseudo-Phocylides , 175–227, Josephus ' polemical work Against Apion , 198–210, and the deutero-canonical Jewish Book of Sirach or Ecclesiasticus , 7:18–36 . More recent research on social behaviour has demonstrated that newborn infants tend to instinctually gravitate towards prosocial behaviour. As obligate social apes, humans are born highly altricial , and require an extended period of post-natal development for cultural transmission of social organization, language, and moral frameworks. In linguistic and anthropological frameworks, this

3008-479: The tragedy of the European and imperial populations. Such images conjured up feelings of required patriotism and activism among those who were influenced. The German Kaiser often appeared in Allied propaganda. His pre-1898 image of a gallant Victorian gentleman was long gone and was replaced by a dangerous troublemaker in the pre-1914 era. During the war, he became the personified image of German aggression; by 1919,

3072-418: The very hand of distraction has proved to be but ephemeral baubles after all". Even married women are a threat lurking within the Gemeinschaft when they act in ways that undermine that family structure. The "dangerous married woman" stereotype shows a woman trying to corrupt an innocent girl, a stereotype that appears in other novels. Stereotypes of corrupted femininity are presented in the wartime propaganda as

3136-457: The war began, the government spread patriotic propaganda to women all over the empire through the women's committees. Propaganda encouraged women to enter the workforce, both to support the Empire and to become self-sufficient by state-sanctioned work that was specified for women. American war propaganda often featured images of women but typically reflected traditional gender norms. While there

3200-550: The war goals, which became harsher as the war went on; luring neutral nations (Italy, the Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria and Romania) into the coalition by offering slices of enemy territory; and encouragement by the Allies of nationalistic minority movements within the Central Powers , especially among Czechs , Poles , and Arabs . In addition, multiple peace proposals came from neutrals and from both sides although none of them progressed very far. Some were neutral efforts to end

3264-922: The war published similar books: the Blue Book of Britain , the Orange Book of Russia , the Yellow Book of France , and the Austro-Hungarian Red Book , the Belgian Grey Book , and the Serbian Blue Book . Atrocity propaganda exploiting sensational stories of rape, mutilation, and wanton murder of prisoners by the Germans filled the Allied press. The German and the Austro-Hungarian soldiers were depicted as inhumane savages, and their barbarity

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3328-449: The war was the " Your Country Needs You " poster, a distinctive recruitment poster of Lord Kitchener (similar to the later Uncle Sam poster) pointing at his British audience to convince it to join the war effort. Another message that was deeply embedded in national sentiment the religious symbolism of St George , who was shown slaying a dragon , which represented the German forces. Images of enthusiastic patriotism seemed to encapsulate

3392-405: The war, and maintaining the home in their absence. (In the wartime propaganda this "virtuous woman" was an ideal contrasted to less desirable archetypes that was presented as immoral or unethical women). Eric Hobsbawm argued that, as globalization turns the entire planet into an increasingly remote kind of Gesellschaft , so too collective identity politics seeks for a fictitious remaking of

3456-510: The war. Propagandists utilized a variety of motifs and ideological underpinnings, such as atrocity propaganda , propaganda dedicated to nationalism and patriotism , and propaganda focused on women. The media was expected to take sides, not to remain neutral, during World War I . When Wilhelm II declared a state of war in Germany on July 31, the commanders of the army corps ( German : Stellvertretende Generalkommandos ) took control of

3520-522: The war. Every country used careful edited newsreels to combine straight news reports and propaganda. Official German propaganda had multiple themes: A) It proclaimed that German victory was a certainty. B) It explained Germany was fighting a war of defence. C) Enemy atrocities were denounced, including its starvation plan for German civilians , use of dum dum bullets , and the use of black soldiers . D) The rhetoric exalted Germany's historic mission to promote high culture and true civilization, celebrating

3584-466: The ways people define themselves and others. They study face-to-face interaction , examining how people make sense of life and how they determine their relationships. World War I propaganda World War I was the first war in which mass media and propaganda played a significant role in keeping the people at home informed on what occurred at the battlefields. It was also the first war in which governments systematically produced propaganda as

3648-486: The work of sociologists such as Max Weber in his theory of social action , where social relationships composed of both positive (affiliative) and negative (agonistic) interactions represented opposing effects. Categorizing social interactions enables observational and other social research, such as Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (lit. 'community and society'), collective consciousness, etc. Ancient works which include manuals of good practice in social relations include

3712-586: The world, especially raw materials, controlled by the British and the French, must be disgorged by the enemy to the benefit of Germany. Different themes were used in propaganda aimed at different audiences. The Germans also funded revolutionary propaganda in support of the Bolsheviks in Russia. Russian World War 1 propaganda posters generally showed the enemies as demonic, one example showing Kaiser Wilhelm as

3776-428: The wrath of nationalist Ireland - the sacking of Louvain in particular - and this too was not merely a revelation but a provocation to some. One pugnacious subeditor, a tribally verdant Glasgow-born, Celtic-supporting Ulsterman, came up to me, almost tapping me on the chest. 'That stuff about German atrocities is just British propaganda. British fucking propaganda . There were no German atrocities. I always knew you were

3840-626: Was emphasized as a way to provide justification for the war. In 1914, the prominent forensic scientist R.A. Reiss was commissioned by the Serbian prime minister to conduct an investigation on war crimes . It was done as a way to depict the multiple acts of violence that had been committed against civilians by the occupying Austro-Hungarian forces in Serbia in 1914. The reports were written in vivid detail and described individual acts of violence against civilians, soldiers, and prisoners of war . Some of

3904-1140: Was increasingly a call to employ women to replace the men who were at war, American propaganda also emphasized sexual morality . Women's clubs often produced attitudes against gambling and prostitution. In wartime fiction published by magazines like McClure's , female characters were cast as either virtuous self-sacrificing homemakers sending the men to war or unethical and selfish women who were usually drunk and too wealthy to be restrained by social mores. McClure's Win-the-War Magazine included contributions from authors Porter Emerson Browne and Dana Gatlin , recognized by scholars for their sentimental style of writing propaganda fiction employing stereotyped female characters. Browne once said of melodramatic writing: "Don't be afraid of seasoning too highly, nor of cooking too fiercely. You can't do it." In Mary and Marie , Browne accuses Mary (and, by extension, her country) of sitting "idly by, selfish, self-satisfied... squandering vacuously in self-pander [all] her riches of honor and courage and dignity", and Marie's country "went to war to save her gentle soul from dishonor". The virtuous Marie

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3968-423: Was proposed by Tönnies as a purely conceptual tool rather than as an ideal type in the way it was used by Max Weber to accentuate the key elements of a historical social change. Tönnies was a Thomas Hobbes scholar—he edited the standard modern editions of Hobbes's The Elements of Law and Leviathan . It was his study of Hobbes that encouraged Tönnies to devote himself wholly to the philosophy of history and

4032-639: Was regarded as unacceptable across the political spectrum . As the Socialist Pioneer of Northampton put it in 1916, there could "be no peace while the frightful menace of world domination by force of German armed might looms about and above us". The Irish journalist Kevin Myers reported on German atrocities in the war, and he said that in doing so, he drew the ire of Irish nationalists : I also wrote of German atrocities in Belgium that had aroused

4096-645: Was the primary reason for Allied propaganda during World War II serving only to intensify anti-war sentiment in the United States. In 1917 Wilson created the Committee on Public Information , which reported directly to him and was essentially a massive generator of propaganda. The Committee on Public Information was responsible for producing films; commissioning posters; publishing numerous books and pamphlets; purchasing advertisements in major newspapers; and recruiting businessmen, preachers, and professors to serve as public speakers in charge of altering public opinion at

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