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58-699: The Gershonites were one of the four main divisions among the Levites in Biblical times. The Bible claims that the Gershonites were all descended from the eponymous Gershon a son of Levi (not to be confused with Moses' son Gershom), although some biblical scholars regard this as a postdictional metaphor providing an aetiology of the connectedness of the clan to others in the Israelite confederation . The Bible lists 2 major family divisions of

116-744: A Bat-Kohen , regardless of the child's father's tribe or the mother's marital status, retain the traditional exemption for their children from the requirement of being redeemed through the Pidyon HaBen . Conservative Judaism permits a Bat Levi to perform essentially all the rituals a male Levi would perform, including being called to the Torah for the Levite aliyah in those Conservative synagogues which have both retained traditional tribal roles and modified traditional gender roles. In Israel, Conservative/Masorti Judaism has not extended Torah honors either to

174-558: A "Middle Eastern origin of the Ashkenazi Levite lineage based on what was previously a relatively limited number of reported samples, can now be considered firmly validated", precising that a "rich variation of haplogroup R1a outside of Europe which is phylogenetically separate from the typically European R1a branches", referring to the R1a-Y2619 sub-clade. Having a last name of Levi or a related term does not necessarily mean

232-594: A Civilization are de facto statements of principles. In 1986, the Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association (RRA) and the Federation of Reconstructionist Congregations and Havurot (FRCH) passed the official "Platform on Reconstructionism". It is not a mandatory statement of principles, but rather a consensus of current beliefs. Major points of the platform state that: Judaism is the result of natural human development. There

290-535: A Civilization: Toward a Reconstruction of American Jewish Life . It was this book that Kaplan claimed was the beginning of the Reconstructionist movement. Judaism as a Civilization suggested that historical Judaism be given a "revaluation... in terms of present-day thought." Reconstructionism was able to spread with several other forms of literature—most notably, the New Haggadah (1941), which for

348-488: A Jewish mother, in the traditional manner, or it does not exist and is not conferred at all. Some Levites have adopted a related last name to signify their status. Because of diverse geographical locations, the names have several variations: The following are some Levites with non-Levite-like last names in modern times: Reconstructionist Judaism Reconstructionist Judaism ( Hebrew : יהדות רקונסטרוקציוניסטית , romanized :  Yahadút Rekonstruktsyonistit )

406-468: A bat Kohen or to a bat Levi. In 1938, with the outbreak of violence that would come to be known as Kristallnacht , American Orthodox rabbi Menachem HaKohen Risikoff wrote about the central role he saw for Priests and Levites in terms of Jewish and world responses, in worship, liturgy, and teshuva , repentance. In The Priests and the Levites (1940), he stressed that members of these groups exist in

464-423: A code of conduct that is meaningful for, and acceptable to, the vast majority of contemporary Jews, and thus must be reinterpreted in each new time period. Unlike classical Reform Judaism , Reconstructionism holds that a person's default position should be to incorporate Jewish laws and tradition into their lives, unless they have a specific reason to do otherwise. However some Reconstructionists believe that halakha

522-742: A distinctive founder event within R1a, the most prevalent Y-chromosome haplogroup in Eastern Europe. Here we report the analysis of 16 whole R1 sequences and show that a set of 19 unique nucleotide substitutions defines the Ashkenazi R1a lineage. While our survey of one of these, M582, in 2,834 R1a samples reveals its absence in 922 Eastern Europeans, we show it is present in all sampled R1a Ashkenazi Levites, as well as in 33.8% of other R1a Ashkenazi Jewish males and 5.9% of 303 R1a Near Eastern males, where it shows considerably higher diversity. Moreover,

580-682: A lesser though somewhat distinct status within Judaism , and are bound by additional restrictions according to Orthodox Judaism . During the Priestly Blessing , the Levites traditionally wash the hands of the Kohanim prior to the blessing of the House of Israel. ("A first-born son washes the Kohen's hands if there is no Levite". ) In Orthodox Judaism, children of a Bat Levi, like those of

638-561: A non-binding statement attempting to delineate the process by which congregations set policy on these issues, and sets forth sample recommendations. These issues are ultimately decided by local lay leadership. In 2015 the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College voted to accept rabbinical students in interfaith relationships, making Reconstructionist Judaism the first type of Judaism to officially allow rabbis in relationships with non-Jewish partners. In making

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696-405: A person is a Levite, and many well-known Levites do not have such last names. Levitical status is passed down in families from father to child born from a Jewish mother, as part of a family's genealogical tradition. Tribal status of Levite is determined by patrilineal descent , so a child whose biological father is a Levite (in cases of adoption or artificial insemination, status is determined by

754-481: A restoration of the Temple as a house of worship and in some special role for Levites, although not the ancient sacrificial system as previously practised—recognizes Levites as having special status. Not all Conservative congregations call Kohanim and Levites to the first and second reading of the Torah , and many no longer perform rituals such as the Priestly Blessing and Pidyon HaBen in which Kohanim and Levites have

812-514: A special role. Reconstructionist and Reform Judaism do not observe distinctions between Kohanim, Levites, and other Jews . The Kohanim are traditionally believed and halachically required to be of direct patrilineal descent from the biblical Aaron of the Tribe of Levi . The origins of the name/term "Levy" in Hebrew remain unclear. Some hypotheses link this name with the Hebrew root lwh ,

870-724: A time close to the initial formation and settlement of the Ashkenazi community as a possible explanation. As Nebel, Behar and Goldstein speculate: although neither the NRY haplogroup composition of the majority of Ashkenazi Jews nor the microsatellite haplotype composition of the R1a1 haplogroup within Ashkenazi Levites is consistent with a major Khazar or other European origin, as has been speculated by some authors (Baron 1957; Dunlop 1967; Ben-Sasson 1976; Keys 1999), one cannot rule out

928-491: Is a Jewish movement based on the concepts developed by Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan (1881–1983) that views Judaism as a progressively evolving civilization rather than just a religion. The movement originated as a semi-organized stream within Conservative Judaism , developed between the late 1920s and the 1940s before seceding in 1955, and established a rabbinical college in 1967. Reconstructionist Judaism

986-435: Is dismissed as supernaturalism . Kaplan posits that revelation "consists in disengaging from the traditional context those elements in it which answer permanent postulates of human nature, and in integrating them into our own ideology...the rest may be relegated to archaeology". Many writers have criticized the movement's most widely held theology, religious naturalism . David Ray Griffin and Louis Jacobs have objected to

1044-713: Is found at the highest levels among people of Eastern European descent, with 50 to 65% among Sorbs , Poles , Russians , and Ukrainians . In South Asia , R1a1a has often been observed with high frequency in a number of demographic groups, reaching over 70% in West Bengal Brahmins in India and among the Mohani people in Sindh , Pakistan. Behar's data suggested a founding event, involving an 'introgression' of anywhere from one to fifty non-Jewish European men, occurring at

1102-483: Is neither normative, nor binding, but are general guidelines. Reconstructionism promotes many traditional Jewish practices. Thus, the commandments have been replaced with "folkways", non-binding customs that can be democratically accepted or rejected by the congregations. Folkways that are promoted include keeping Hebrew in the prayer service , studying Torah , daily prayer, wearing kippot ( yarmulkes ), tallitot and tefillin during prayer, and observance of

1160-400: Is no such thing as divine intervention; Judaism is an evolving religious civilization; Zionism and aliyah (immigration to Israel) are encouraged; Reconstructionist Judaism is based on a democratic community where the laity can make decisions, not just rabbis; The Torah was not inspired by God; it only comes from the social and historical development of Jewish people; The classical view of God

1218-437: Is not anthropomorphic in any way, a position articulated by prominent medieval Jewish thinkers like Maimonides and in agreement with the rest of Rabbinic Judaism . All anthropomorphic descriptions of God are understood to be metaphorical. Kaplan's theology went further to claim that God is neither a personal nor conscious being; God cannot relate to or communicate with humanity in any way. Kaplan's theology defines God as

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1276-536: Is recognized by many scholars as one of the five major streams of Judaism in America alongside Orthodox , Conservative, Reform , and Humanistic . There is substantial theological diversity within the movement. Halakha (Jewish law) is not considered normative and binding but is instead seen as the basis for the ongoing evolution of meaningful Jewish practice. In contrast with the Reform movement's stance during

1334-516: Is rejected. God is redefined as the sum of natural powers or processes that allows mankind to gain self-fulfillment and moral improvement; The idea that God chose the Jewish people for any purpose, in any way, is "morally untenable", because anyone who has such beliefs "implies the superiority of the elect community and the rejection of others." Most Reconstructionists do not believe in revelation (the idea that God reveals his will to human beings). This

1392-557: Is the Power in the cosmos that gives human life the direction that enables the human being to reflect the image of God. Most "classical" Reconstructionist Jews (i.e., those agreeing with Kaplan) reject traditional forms of theism , though this is by no means universal. Many Reconstructionist Jews are deists , but the movement also includes Jews who hold Kabbalistic , pantheistic , personal, and/or panentheistic views of God. Kaplan's theology, as he explicitly stated, does not represent

1450-483: Is the Reconstructionist movement's summer sleep away camp. In April 2016, a new Reconstructionist rabbinical organization was formed: Beit Kaplan: The Rabbinic Partnership for Jewish Peoplehood. Originally, Beit Kaplan was focused upon opposing both the decision to allow Reconstructionist rabbis to have non-Jewish partners, and the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions movement within Reconstructionist circles. Following

1508-441: The 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel , Beit Kaplan's membership increased to 72 rabbis and rabbinical students in six countries. Presently, Beit Kaplan focuses on a "course correction" to reestablish the Reconstructionist movement's support for Israel and emphasis on the centrality of Jewish peoplehood. According to the 2010 US Religion Census, there were 41,436 members of Reconstructionist Judaism within 95 synagogues. As of 2020,

1566-530: The Book of Joshua , rather than possessing a continuous territory, the Gershonites possessed several cities scattered throughout the geographic regions of Galilee and Bashan : Levites The Tribe of Levi served particular religious duties for the Israelites and had political (administering cities of refuge) and educational responsibilities as well. In return, the landed tribes were expected to support

1624-741: The Jewish holidays . Reconstructionists may use distinct prayer books, such as the Kol haneshamah Hebrew/English Reconstructionist prayer book. Marc Shapiro called attention to the Reconstructionist Kol haneshamah taking liberties with the text, sometimes with an English translation "so blatantly inaccurate that we have no choice but to regard it as a conscious alteration." In practice, Kaplan's books, especially The Meaning of God in Modern Jewish Religion and Judaism as

1682-682: The Kohanim recite the Priestly Blessing . Since Levites (and Kohanim) are traditionally pledged to Divine service, there is no Pidyon HaBen (redemption of the firstborn) ceremony for: Orthodox Judaism believes in the eventual rebuilding of a Temple in Jerusalem and a resumption of the Levitical role. A small number of schools, primarily in Israel , train priests and Levites in their respective roles. Conservative Judaism —which believes in

1740-651: The Pew Research Center estimated that Reconstructionist Judaism, along with Humanistic Judaism and other smaller denominations, constituted 4% of the United States's 7.5 million Jews. Originally an offshoot of Conservative Judaism , Reconstructionism retains warm relations with Reform Judaism; however, Orthodox Judaism considers Reconstructionism, and every other non-Orthodox denomination, to be in violation of proper observance of interpretation of Jewish law. The Jewish Reconstructionist Federation

1798-618: The 1940s. After being rejected by Orthodox rabbis for his focus on issues in the community and the sociopolitical environment, Kaplan and a group of followers founded the Society for the Advancement of Judaism (SAJ) in 1922. Its goal was to give rabbis the opportunity to form new outlooks on Judaism in a more progressive manner. Kaplan was the leader of the SAJ until Eisenstein succeeded him in 1945. In 1935, Kaplan published his book, Judaism as

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1856-625: The Aramaic root lwy , or the Arabic root lwy . The noun kohen is used in the Torah to refer to priests , both Israelite and non-Israelite, such as the Israelite nation as a whole, as well as the priests (Hebrew kohanim ) of Baal . During the existence of the Temple in Jerusalem , Kohanim performed the daily and holiday ( Yom Tov ) duties of sacrificial offerings . Today kohanim retain

1914-671: The Gershonites, the Libnites and the Shimeites (Numbers 3:21). The Bible ascribes a specific religious function to the Gershonites, namely care of the curtains, hangings, and ropes of the sanctuary. This differentiation of religious activity between the Gershonites and other Levites, in particular the Aaronids, is found only in the Priestly Code , and not in passages that textual scholars attribute to other authors. According to

1972-573: The Levites with a tithe ( Numbers 18:21–25 ), particularly the tithe known as the First tithe , ma'aser rishon . The Kohanim , a subset of the Levites, were the priests, who performed the work of holiness in the Temple. The Levites, referring to those who were not Kohanim, were specifically assigned to: When Joshua led the Israelites into the land of Canaan ( Joshua 13:33 ), the Sons of Levi were

2030-530: The M582 lineage also occurs at low frequencies in non-Ashkenazi Jewish populations. In contrast to the previously suggested Eastern European origin for Ashkenazi Levites, the current data are indicative of a geographic source of the Levite founder lineage in the Near East and its likely presence among pre-Diaspora Hebrews. In a later 2017 study Behar et al. revised their initially mitigated position, concluding that

2088-711: The Y-chromosome by Behar et al. pointed to multiple origins for Ashkenazi Levites, who comprise approximately 4% among the Ashkenazi Jews. It found that Haplogroup R1a1a (R-M17), uncommon in the Middle East or among Sephardic Jews , is present in over 50% of Ashkenazi Levites, while the rest of Ashkenazi Levites' paternal lineage is of certain Middle Eastern origin, including Y-chromosome haplogroups E3b, J2, F, R1b, K, I, Q, N and L. Haplogroup R1a1a

2146-431: The actual conditions and spiritual needs of modern life." The movement also emphasizes positive views toward modernity and has an approach to Jewish customs that aims toward communal decision-making through a process of education and distillation of values from traditional Jewish sources. The movement's 2011 A Guide to Jewish Practice describes a Reconstructionist approach to Jewish practice as "post- halakhic " because

2204-415: The broad range of views that Reconstructionist rabbis and scholars advocate. The guide states that it "assumes that thoughtful individuals and committed communities can handle diversity and will of necessity reach their own conclusions." Reconstructionism was developed by Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan (1881–1983) and his son-in-law, Rabbi Ira Eisenstein (1906–2001), over a period of time from the late 1920s to

2262-400: The concept of " chosenness ", a belief in some form of resurrection or continued existence of the dead, and the existence of an obligatory form of halakha . In the latter, in particular, there has developed a broader concept of halakha wherein concepts such as " Eco-Kashrut " are incorporated. Reconstructionist Judaism holds that the traditional halakhic system is incapable of producing

2320-492: The decision to allow rabbis to have non-Jewish partners. Over 100 synagogues and havurot , mostly in the United States and Canada, were affiliated with the Jewish Reconstructionist Federation . As of June 3, 2012, the Reconstructionist movement has been restructured. A joint institution consisting of the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College (RRC) and the congregational organization is now

2378-444: The decision, the movement considered that "many younger progressive Jews, including many rabbis and rabbinical students, now perceive restrictions placed on those who are intermarried as reinforcing a tribalism that feels personally alienating and morally troubling in the 21st century." In April 2016 nineteen Reconstructionist rabbis announced the formation of Beit Kaplan: The Rabbinic Partnership for Jewish Peoplehood, in part to protest

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2436-663: The fall of 1968, the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College was opened in Philadelphia. Along with the establishment of the college, the Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association formed, which gave rabbis a strong network in the religious leadership of Reconstructionism. The founding of these institutions were great strides in its becoming the fourth movement in North American Judaism ( Orthodox , Conservative , and Reform being

2494-526: The first lesbian to lead a Jewish seminary; the RRC is both a congregational union and a seminary. Waxman is a 1999 graduate of RRC. The RRC educates rabbis. The Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association is the professional organization of Reconstructionist rabbis. The Jewish Reconstructionist youth organization is named No'ar Hadash . Camp Havaya (formerly Camp JRF) in South Sterling, Pennsylvania ,

2552-490: The first time blended Kaplan's ideologies in Jewish ceremonial literature. Although Kaplan did not want Reconstructionism to branch into another Jewish denomination, it became apparent that such an outcome was inevitable. At the Montreal conference in 1967, Reconstructionist leaders called for a rabbinical school in which rabbis could be ordained under the Reconstructionist ideology and lead Reconstructionist congregations. By

2610-408: The genetic father), is also considered a Levite. Jewish status is determined by matrilineal descent, thus conferring levitical status onto children requires both biological parents to be Israelites and the biological father to be a Levite. Accordingly, there is currently no branch of Judaism that regards levitical status as conferrable by matrilineal descent. It is either conferrable patrilineally with

2668-558: The important contribution of a single or a few founders among contemporary Ashkenazi Levites." A 2013 paper by Siiri Rootsi et al. confirmed a Near or Middle Eastern origin for all Ashkenazi Levites, including the R1a Y-chromosome carriers, and refuted the Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry : Previous Y-chromosome studies have demonstrated that Ashkenazi Levites, members of a paternally inherited Jewish Levite caste, display

2726-501: The modern world is one in which Jewish law cannot be enforced. Obligation and spiritual discipline exist without the enforcement of a functioning legal system. Thus, Reconstructionist Jews take Jewish law seriously as a source and resource that can shape expectations while not necessarily seeing themselves as bound by inherited claims of obligation. Therefore, the practices in the guide are not monolithic, and commentators provide further insights, arguments, and alternative approaches that span

2784-546: The only Israelite tribe that received cities but were not allowed to be landowners "because the Lord the God of Israel Himself is their inheritance" ( Deuteronomy 18:2 ). In modern times, Levites are integrated in Jewish communities, but keep a distinct status. There are estimated 300,000 Levites among Ashkenazi Jewish communities, and a similar number among Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews combined. The total percentage of Levites among

2842-486: The only Reconstructionist understanding of theology and theology is not the cornerstone of the Reconstructionist movement. Much more central is the idea that Judaism is a civilization , and that the Jewish people must take an active role in ensuring its future by participating in its ongoing evolution. Consequently, a strain of Reconstructionism exists which is distinctly non-Kaplanian. In this view, Kaplan's assertions concerning belief and practice are largely rejected, while

2900-610: The other three). Reconstructionist Judaism is the first major movement of Judaism to originate in North America; the second is the Humanistic Judaism movement founded in 1963 by Rabbi Sherwin Wine . Kaplan believed that, in light of advances in philosophy, science, and history, it would be impossible for modern Jews to continue to adhere to many of Judaism's traditional theological claims. Kaplan affirmed that God

2958-431: The primary organization of the movement. The movement's new designation was first "Jewish Reconstructionist Communities," and in 2018 became Reconstructing Judaism . Rabbi Deborah Waxman was inaugurated as the president of the RRC and Jewish Reconstructionist Communities on October 26, 2014. As the president of the RRC, she is believed to be the first woman and first lesbian to lead a Jewish congregational union, and

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3016-434: The realm between history (below) and redemption (above), and must act in a unique way to help move others to prayer and action, and help bring an end to suffering. He wrote, "Today, we also are living through a time of flood, Not of water, but of a bright fire, which burns and turns Jewish life into ruin. We are now drowning in a flood of blood. ... Through the Kohanim and Levi'im help will come to all Israel." A 2003 study of

3074-853: The redefinitions of the terms "revelation" and "God" as being intellectually dishonest, and as being a form of "conversion by definition"; in their critique, these redefinitions take non-theistic beliefs and attach theistic terms to them. Similar critiques have been put forth by Rabbis Neil Gillman , Milton Steinberg , and Michael Samuels. Reconstructionist Judaism is egalitarian with respect to gender roles . All positions are open to all genders; they are open to lesbians, gay men, and transgender individuals as well. Reconstructionist Judaism allows its rabbis to determine their own policy regarding officiating at intermarriages . Some congregations accept patrilineal as well as matrilineal descent, and children of one Jewish parent, of any gender, are considered Jewish by birth if raised as Jews. This contrasts with

3132-443: The sum of all natural processes that allow people to become self-fulfilled. To believe in God means to accept life on the assumption that it harbors conditions in the outer world and drives in the human spirit which together impel man to transcend himself. To believe in God means to take for granted that it is man's destiny to rise above the brute and to eliminate all forms of violence and exploitation from human society. In brief, God

3190-417: The tenets of an "evolving religious civilization" are supported. The basis for this approach is that Kaplan spoke for his generation; he also wrote that every generation would need to define itself and its civilization for itself. In the thinking of these Reconstructionists, what Kaplan said concerning belief and practice is not applicable today. This approach may include a belief in a personal God, acceptance of

3248-529: The time he was writing, Kaplan believed that "Jewish life [is] meaningless without Jewish law" and one of the planks he wrote for the proto-Reconstructionist Society for the Jewish Renaissance stated, "We accept the halakha , which is rooted in the Talmud , as the norm of Jewish life, availing ourselves, at the same time, of the method implicit therein to interpret and develop the body of Jewish Law by

3306-505: The traditional interpretations of Jewish law of both Rabbinical Judaism , in which a child is Jewish by birth if its mother was Jewish; and of Karaite Judaism , in which a child is Jewish by birth if its father was Jewish. The role of non-Jews in Reconstructionist congregations is a matter of ongoing debate. Practices vary between synagogues. Most congregations strive to strike a balance between inclusivity and integrity of boundaries. The Jewish Reconstructionist Federation (JRF) has issued

3364-548: The wider Jewish population is about 4%. Today, Levites in Orthodox Judaism continue to have additional rights and obligations compared to lay people, although these responsibilities have diminished with the destruction of the Temple . For instance, Kohanim are eligible to be called to the Torah first, followed by the Levites. Levites also provide assistance to the Kohanim , particularly washing their hands, before

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