Misplaced Pages

#41958

101-666: Following the Battle of Shanghai of 1937, the cabinet of Japanese Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe pushed for a quick and diplomatic settlement to the war in China, and not an expensive and long-term occupation (see Trautmann mediation ). Furthermore, the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters was not keen to permit a repeat of the political experimentation undertaken by the Kwantung Army in

202-456: A Gettysburg were fought in Harlem, while the rest of Manhattan remained a non-belligerent observer." An eyewitness at the battle stated that it was "no longer a war between armies, but between races. With mounting fury the two giants, like two men who have started a boxing match and who suddenly find themselves convulsed with hate, sprang at each other’s throat in a tussle in which the only prize

303-701: A 20-day period between October 5 and October 25. The 101st Division alone suffered 3,000 casualties in four days of combat around Wusong Creek, and the 9th division suffered some 9,556 casualties for an advance of 2.5 miles. Despite heavy casualties, the Japanese would eventually breach the Wusong Creek line, seizing the Tangqiaozhan bridge from the Chinese Tax Police Division after two days of intense fighting. However, even though

404-426: A Japanese tank assault with air support broke through the gate the next day. The Chinese defenders were gradually pushed into a shrinking perimeter, and only had 100 troops by sunset. Yao ordered a single soldier to escape the city and deliver news of the unit's impeding fate. The soldier succeeded in delivering his message, which was simply: "We are determined to continue fighting the enemy until each and every one of us

505-402: A bridge between the common people and the government. There were three kinds of yamen runner, zao ( 皂 ), zhuang ( 壮 ), kuai ( 快 ). But in fact, there were more different kinds in specific . Zao usually served around the court, Zhuang provided physical labor and Kuai were in charge of inspection, investigation, and arrest. Zao acted as the officials' bodyguards. They usually followed behind

606-493: A card on the waist belt to identify themselves. In the Ming Dynasty, due to their duties, yamen runners were considered as a debased class ( jianmin , 贱民 ), which is even lower than good commoners ( liangmin , 良民 ) such as farmers. It is the lowest stratum in society. The salary provided by the court for the yamen runner was low compared to other jobs. The average daily salary was enough for only one meal. While

707-607: A result a division had the fighting capability of less than two regiments . By now, the Chinese army needed between eight and twelve divisions to match the fighting strength of just one Japanese division. Thus, Chinese commanders were pessimistic about the outcome of the Suzhou Creek combat. Yamen A yamen ( ya-men ; traditional Chinese : 衙門 ; simplified Chinese : 衙门 ; pinyin : yámén ; Wade–Giles : ya -men ; Manchu : ᠶᠠᠮᡠᠨ yamun )

808-884: A temporary measure. After Liang Hongzhi established the Reformed Government of the Republic of China in Nanjing , the occupied Nationalist capital, in March 1938, the Japanese Central China Area Army organized a number of public rallies and ceremonies in support. In less than a month, the Reformed Government asserted its authority over the Great Way Government by establishing a Supervisory Yamen to take over

909-726: A thousand troops. 36th staff officer Xiong Xinmin saw a Chinese suicide bomber stop a Japanese tank column by exploding himself beneath the lead tank. On August 22, the Japanese 3rd , 8th , and 11th Divisions made an amphibious assault under the cover of naval bombardment and proceeded to land in Chuanshakou (川沙口), Shizilin (獅子林), and Baoshan (寶山), towns on the northeast coast some fifty kilometers (31 miles) away from downtown Shanghai. Japanese landings in northeast Shanghai suburban areas meant that many Chinese troops, who were deployed in Shanghai's urban center, had to be redeployed to

1010-552: A total of 3,000 of civilian deaths and injuries resulting from the accidental release of the bombs, with most of the death occurring at the Great World entertainment centre, where civilian refugees had gathered after fleeing from the fighting. The bombing was not an intended attack on the International Settlement: the four errant bombs were intended for the Japanese cruiser Izumo , which was moored nearby in

1111-439: Is a piece of paper on which a yamen runner was drawn, and upon which is recorded an accusation or tax liability, as well as a demand for the recipient to appear in court or pay the tax. The prefects and magistrates issued this to the litigants or tax defaulters in the hope that they would voluntarily appear in court or pay tax in arrears. It's unclear when the paper yamen runner was created, but literature about it can be found during

SECTION 10

#1732783041042

1212-573: Is additional 18,761 casualties for the 9th division alone before December 1); this figure does not include the sick, the repatriated and those who died because of injuries Osprey Publishing 2017 data : 18,800 combat killed ( c.  17,000 plus about 1,800 illness-induced deaths), 35,000–40,000 wounded, and 40,000 sick, KIA figure seconded by General Iwane Matsui 's Speech in 1938 Taishō period Shōwa period The Battle of Shanghai ( traditional Chinese : 淞滬會戰 ; simplified Chinese : 淞沪会战 ; pinyin : Sōng hù huìzhàn )

1313-415: Is killed." On the next day, September 6, Baoshan fell. By that point, Japanese artillery strikes had reduced the town to rubble, and Yao had been killed in house-to-house fighting. The entire battalion, except for the single soldier sent outside, was killed in action. The Chinese would continue to sustain this level of casualties throughout the Shanghai campaign. On September 11, with the fall of Baoshan,

1414-814: The Chinese Air Force at the beginning of full-scale hostilities consisted primarily of Curtiss Hawk IIs and Hawk IIIs (many license-built at the CAMCO plant at the Jianqiao Airbase ) and the Boeing P-26 Model 281 Peashooter . The Chinese pilots in particular used the Hawk IIIs in various multi-role combat operations against Imperial Japanese positions in and around Shanghai, while the P-26 primarily provided escort cover. On August 14,

1515-460: The Qing dynasty . Within a local yamen , the bureaucrat administered the government business of the town or region. Typical responsibilities of the bureaucrat includes local finance, capital works, judging of civil and criminal cases, and issuing decrees and policies. Typically, the bureaucrat and his immediate family would live in a residence attached to the yamen . This was especially so during

1616-676: The Sihang Warehouse on the northern bank of the Suzhou Creek . Under the leadership of Whampoa Colonel Xie Jinyuan , the 1st battalion of the 524th regiment rallied some 411 men and officers to make a stand in the five-story "Four Banks" Warehouse (Sihang Warehouse). The building was situated on the Suzhou Creek across from the International Settlement, and was reinforced with rifle slots, machine gun nests and sandbags. Between October 27th and November 1st,

1717-512: The Tao —and its flag: the yin-yang symbol of Daoism on a yellow background. (The colors yellow, gold , and saffron are often associated with Buddhism .) The new government quickly made efforts to restore the city's public services and established a police force under the command of Zhang Songlin , former commander of the Jiangsu provincial police, to maintain public order. Funding

1818-441: The 524th battalion defended Sihang Warehouse against multiple attacks from the Japanese. The warehouse's ten-foot thick walls and proximity to the International Settlement nullified Japanese advantages in firepower, as the Japanese feared accidentally hitting the foreign concessions. As a result, the Chinese managed to beat back several Japanese attacks, which were witnessed by crowds of tens of thousands Westerners and Chinese across

1919-480: The Chinese Army moved into defensive positions around the small town of Luodian (羅店), the transportation center connecting Baoshan, downtown Shanghai, Jiading , Songjiang and several other towns with highways. The successful defense of Luodian was strategically paramount to the security of Suzhou and Shanghai; as early as August 29, German adviser Alexander von Falkenhausen had advised Chiang Kai-shek that

2020-671: The Chinese Peace Preservation Corps exchanged small arms fire with Japanese troops in the Zhabei, Wusong, and Jiangwan districts of Shanghai. At about 3 pm the Japanese army crossed over the Bazi Bridge (八字橋) in Zhabei and attacked various centers in the city. The 88th Division retaliated with mortar attacks. Sporadic shooting continued through the day until 4 pm, when Japanese headquarters ordered ships of

2121-434: The Chinese concentrated some 300,000 soldiers there, while the Japanese amassed more than 100,000 troops, supported by naval gunfire, tanks, and aircraft. The carnage and intensity of the resulting battle earned the fight for Luodian the nickname "grinding mill of flesh and blood" (血肉磨坊). Japanese assaults typically began at daybreak with concentrated aerial bombing, followed by the release of observation balloons to pinpoint

SECTION 20

#1732783041042

2222-430: The Chinese fought against great odds and tried to hold on to the coastal villages as long as they could. It was commonplace for the Japanese to successfully occupy the towns in the day under heavy naval support, only to lose them during the night to Chinese counterattacks. Such attacks and counterattacks continued well into late August, when the fall of Baoshan, a vital coastal town, seemed imminent. Chiang Kai-shek ordered

2323-537: The Huangpu River to avoid encirclement by the Japanese. The defense of Dachang was vital to how long the Chinese army could continue fighting in the Shanghai war zone; for this, Chiang Kai-shek mobilized whatever remaining troops he could find. To compensate for artillery shortages, Matsui massed four Japanese divisions, some 60,000 men, in a 6 mile front to break through the Chinese lines via brute frontal assaults. The Chinese focused their defensive line on

2424-527: The Hueishan docks along with the 36th Division. On August 22, the tanks of the 36th Division reached the docks, but were unable to hold the position for long. The Chinese troops were insufficiently trained in coordinating infantry-tank tactics, and the troops were unable to keep up with the tanks. Without sufficient infantry to protect them, the tanks were vulnerable to Japanese anti-tank weapons and artillery in close quarters and became useless when they entered

2525-456: The Japanese forces smashed into the Chinese defenses across the Wusong Creek, but were immediately met by fierce resistance. The Chinese resisted the assault fiercely, pummeling the Japanese bridgeheads with concentrated and coordinated artillery fire from six artillery battalions, which were reinforced with 2cm and 3.7cm anti-aircraft guns to protect against Japanese aircraft. The two armies would engage in seesaw battles, with little changes in

2626-580: The Japanese penetrated the Wusong Creek line, they were confronted with further belts of similar defenses built around a series of creeks anchored by Zoumatang Creek. The two armies became bogged down in trench warfare around a mostly stagnant frontline, with heavy rains transforming the terrain into a muddy landscape. On October 21, the Guangxi Army under Li Zongren and Bai Chongxi finally arrived to join Chiang Kai-shek's Central Army in

2727-609: The Ming and Qing Dynasties. Because it was tempting for yamen runners to take unlawful advantage of their position, magistrates would occasionally allow plaintiffs to take litigants to the court first. If a plaintiff failed to do so, the magistrate would issue a paper yamen runner. Only if both methods failed would an actual yamen runner be sent to arrest the litigant. In this way, fewer yamen runners were required. Such practices were typically employed only for mild crimes, however. For serious crimes such as murder, theft, gambling, and fights,

2828-551: The NRA besieged the Japanese Naval Landing Force stationed in Shanghai in bloody urban fighting in an attempt to dislodge them. The second stage lasted from August 23 to October 26, 1937, during which the Japanese launched reinforcing amphibious landings on the Jiangsu coast and the two armies fought a house-to-house battle in the creek country north of Shanghai, with the Japanese attempting to gain control of

2929-526: The Proclamation of Self-Defense and War of Resistance (自衛抗戰聲明書), explaining the government's resolution against Japanese aggression. The Battle of Shanghai had officially begun. American correspondent Edgar Snow described the scenes of the battle while observing from the international zone, "It was as though Verdun had happened on the Seine, in full view of a Right Bank Paris that was neutral; as though

3030-497: The Qing dynasty, when imperial law forbade a person from taking government office in his native province. Yamen s varied greatly in size depending on the level of government they administered, and the seniority of the bureaucrat 's office. However, a yamen at a local level typically had similar features: a front gate, a courtyard and a hall (typically serving as a court of law); offices, prison cells and store rooms; and residences for

3131-667: The ROCAF bombed the Japanese Navy flagship Izumo . In what became known as "Black Saturday", bombs from ROCAF aircraft fell in the Shanghai International Settlement. While the Chinese pilots were instructed not to fly over the Shanghai International Settlement, the Japanese flagship was berthed right in front of it in what may amount to using the civilian enclave as a human shield ; 700-950 Chinese and foreign civilians were killed outright, with

Great Way Government - Misplaced Pages Continue

3232-542: The SEF, led by Iwane Matsui , landed in Liuhe, Wusong (吳淞), and Chuanshakou. Chiang Kai-shek had expected these coastal towns to be vulnerable to Japanese landings and ordered Chen Cheng to reinforce the area with the 18th Army. However, the Chinese were no match for Japanese firepower. The Japanese almost always began their amphibious assaults with heavy naval and air bombardment of the Chinese coastal defense works and trenches . It

3333-652: The Third Fleet stationed in the Yangtze and the Huangpu River to open fire on Chinese positions in the city. Late that night, Chiang Kai-shek ordered Zhang Zhizhong to begin Chinese offensive operations the next day. The next morning the Republic of China Air Force (ROCAF) began bombing various Japanese targets and Chinese ground forces attacked at 3 pm. On the same day, August 14, the Chinese government issued

3434-776: The Western Detachment of the Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces stationed in Shanghai and his driver, First-Class Seaman Saito Yozo, along with a guard from the Chinese Peace Preservation Corps were found dead around the gate to Hongqiao Airport on Monument Road. Several accounts allege Ōyama and his driver were stopped by the Peace Preservation Corps Guard before Ōyama opened fire and killed them. The Sub-Lieutenant and his driver were then subsequently killed in returning fire from other guards at airport. Ōyama

3535-800: The Whangpoo (Huangpu) river, adjacent to the Bund. Two exploded in Nanking Road and two in front of the Great World Amusement Centre on Avenue Edward VII , killing an estimated 2,000 shoppers and passers-by. Japanese planes responded to the attack on Izumo and the 4th Flying Group of the ROCAF, based in Henan , under the command of Captain Gao Zhihang (高志航), shot down six Japanese planes, while suffering zero losses. (In 1940

3636-515: The Wusong Creek, a natural defensive position with a six-foot tall embankment and a width of up to three hundred feet across. The Chinese, learning from the lessons of their German advisors, had fortified the southern bank with a dense network of defenses, including barbed wire, machine gun nests, artillery emplacements, pillboxes and trenches. The local buildings and farmhouses were reinforced with sandbags and barbed wire, and trees had been cut down to ensure open fields of fire . On October 5,

3737-680: The Zoumatang Creek and pushed the remaining Chinese forces back to Dachang. The Japanese then utilized some 700 artillery pieces and 400 aircraft including 150 bombers for the assault on Dachang and reduced the town to rubble. They then followed up with an armored spearhead of some 40 tanks. The Chinese defenders, having withdrawn their artillery to safer positions beforehand, were outgunned and overwhelmed. The fighting continued until October 26, when Dachang finally fell. By then, Chinese troops had no option but to withdraw from downtown Shanghai, which they had held for almost three months. Starting

3838-465: The amphibious assaults had only their small-caliber weapons to depend on, and were not sufficiently supported by the ROCAF and the almost nonexistent Chinese navy. They paid heavily for the defense. An entire regiment could be reduced to just a few men in action. In addition, Chinese coastal defense works were hastily constructed and did not offer much protection against enemy attacks, as many trenches were newly constructed during lulls in fighting. Moreover,

3939-414: The assortment of criminals, religious cultists, and narcotics dealers who gravitated to leading positions in the new administration. The promised public works failed to materialize as Su's cronies siphoned off funds, and the propaganda value of the new administration quickly deteriorated. In December 1937, the Japanese brought in a tough northern Chinese collaborator named Wang Zihui to oversee operations as

4040-532: The battle for Jiangyin began. Military preparations for the battle began on 7 August, when Chinese Secretary of the Navy Chen Shaokuan ordered a blockade at Jiangyin with a force of five light cruisers and one training cruiser along with several mines to prevent Japanese warships from entering the Yangtze River. Admiral Kiyoshi Hasegawa of the Japanese 3rd Fleet ordered aerial bombings of

4141-534: The battle for Shanghai. These Guangxi units, four divisions in total, then staged a final counteroffensive in an attempt to fully consolidate Chinese positions around Dachang and retake the banks of the Wusong Creek. However, the counteroffensive was poorly coordinated with little reconnaissance , and quickly bogged down despite some initial success. The Japanese would counterattack with artillery, tanks and poison gas on October 23, with Japanese aircraft wreaking havoc on Chinese divisions throughout daytime. The operation

Great Way Government - Misplaced Pages Continue

4242-526: The battle, with Japanese forces confirmed to have illegally deployed poison gas at least thirteen times. Historian Peter Harmsen stated that the battle "presaged urban combat as it was to be waged not just during the Second World War, but throughout the remainder of the twentieth century" and that it "signalled the totality of modern urban warfare". It has also been called "one of the most incredible defensive battles ever waged on this planet". It

4343-491: The bureaucrat, his family and his staff. At the provincial level and above, specialisation among officials occurred to a greater extent. For example, the three chief officials of a province ( simplified Chinese : 三大宪 ; traditional Chinese : 三大憲 ; pinyin : Sàn Dà Xiàn ; lit. 'the Three Great Laws';) controlled the legislative and executive, the judicial, and the military affairs of

4444-424: The ceasefire terms. Japan demanded the withdrawal of Chinese troops from Shanghai, while the Chinese representative Yu Hung-chun dismissed the Japanese demand, stating that the terms of ceasefire have already been violated by Japan. The major powers did not wish to see another January 28 Incident , which greatly disrupted foreign economic activities in Shanghai. On the other hand, Chinese citizens feverishly welcomed

4545-760: The city and heavy destruction to the city. It was the first of the twenty-two major engagements fought between the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) of the Republic of China (ROC) and the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) of the Empire of Japan at the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War . The Japanese eventually prevailed after over three months of extensive fighting on land, in the air and at sea. Both sides accused each other of using chemical weapons during

4646-434: The city and the surrounding regions. The last stage, ranging from October 27 to the end of November 1937, involved the retreat of the Chinese army in the face of Japanese flanking maneuvers, and the ensuing combat on the road to China's capital at the time, Nanjing . In addition to the urban combat, trench warfare was also fought in the outskirts of the city. On 9 August, Naval Sub-Lieutenant Isao Ōyama ( 大山勇夫 ) , head of

4747-414: The city center. The few troops who did manage to keep up with the tanks through the city blocks were then trapped by Japanese blockades and annihilated by flamethrowers and intense machine gun fire. While the Chinese almost succeeded in pushing the Japanese down the Huangpu River, the casualty rate was exceedingly high. During the night of August 22 alone, the 36th Division lost more than ninety officers and

4848-625: The coastal regions to counter the landings. Thus, the front line was lengthened from metropolitan Shanghai along the Huangpu River to the northeast coastal districts. The Chinese offensive in the urban center had ground to a halt, and the fighting in downtown Shanghai essentially became a stalemate with both sides suffering heavy losses and making minimal changes in the front line. The Chinese divisions were able to hold on to Zhabei, Jiangwan, and other downtown positions for three months, until situations in other areas made it strategically impossible to continue defending them. The frontline fighter aircraft of

4949-502: The command of General Iwane Matsui . On August 19, Japanese Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe announced that the Sino-Japanese conflict could only be resolved through war, regardless of any attempts at negotiation by third party nations. Konoe said that the initial plan of localized "containment" around the Shanghai region had now escalated to total war, with the ultimate goal of forcing the Chinese government to fully cooperate with

5050-466: The commander of the third war zone which covers the entirety of Shanghai. Regardless, the Chinese offensives against the Japanese garrison failed despite outnumbering the Japanese troops, due to the lack of heavy weaponry and artillery support. As the Chinese forces began to withdraw from the Shanghai area, more Japanese troops began to land near Shanghai, inflicting heavy casualties on the Chinese side. The fighting spread across from Shanghai metropolis all

5151-537: The creek. At one point, girl guide Yang Huimin smuggled a Chinese Nationalist flag into the warehouse, which the defenders then raised as a symbol of defiance. Eventually, Chiang ordered the battalion to retreat into the nearby International Settlement, where they were interned by British authorities. Most of the 1st battalion survived intact: 34 Chinese defenders had been killed in action. The attacking Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces suffered one fatal casualty around Sihang Warehouse among some forty wounded during

SECTION 50

#1732783041042

5252-681: The economic and political demands of Japan. On August 23, the Japanese began the bombing campaign over Nanjing, and various cities in Central China. The Shanghai Expeditionary Army also arrived on the same day. At the beginning of the battle, Zhang Zhizhong, as the commander of the 5th Army and the Nanjing-Shanghai war zone, was responsible for conducting Chinese operations. The failure of the initial Chinese offensive greatly dismayed Chiang Kai-shek and his staff. Chiang criticized Zhang's failure to make sufficient preparations, especially

5353-404: The encircling strategy. On August 18 the Chinese attack was called off. On August 18, Chen Cheng reached the front lines to discuss the situation with Zhang Zhizhong. They decided to send the newly arrived 36th Division into the fray, attacking the Hueishan (匯山) docks on the northern side of the Huangpu River. Meanwhile, the 87th Division broke through Japanese lines at Yangshupu, and pushed onto

5454-797: The end, Shanghai fell, and China lost a significant portion of its best troops, the elite Chinese forces trained and equipped by the Germans , while failing to elicit any international intervention. However, the resistance of Chinese forces over three months of battle shocked the Japanese, who had been indoctrinated with notions of cultural and martial superiority, and largely demoralized the Imperial Japanese Army, who believed they could take Shanghai within days and China within months. The battle can be divided into three stages, and eventually involved around one million troops. The first stage lasted from August 13 to August 22, 1937, during which

5555-410: The enemy when the Japanese land offensive started after naval and artillery strikes had ceased. Despite their numerical superiority, the defense of Luodian would prove impossible for the Chinese. The Japanese superiority of firepower forced the Chinese into a passive position, from which they could not mount counter-attacks until the Japanese were practically on top of them. Because of this, the decision

5656-518: The establishment of Manchukuo , and pressured the Japanese Central China Area Army to establish a collaborationist local government to handle the details of local administration for the Shanghai metropolitan area. In November 1937, a number of well-known residents were approached to take over provisional civilian administration of the city. Eventually, the Japanese were able to secure the assistance of Fu Xiao'an (傅筱庵),

5757-404: The exact location of remaining Chinese positions for artillery and naval strikes. Japanese infantry would then advance under smoke screens , with armored support. Japanese planes would also accompany the infantry and strafe Chinese reinforcements. The battle for Luodian was marked by bloody street fighting, with the close combat making the Chinese the equals of the Japanese. Chinese defense

5858-423: The forces at Jiangyin with carrier and ground-based aircraft, which led to the sinking of ten Chinese ships by 23 October. However, despite these losses, the Chinese navy recovered some of the naval guns from the sunken ships and deployed them on land as coastal batteries, thus maintaining a defensive position at Jiangyin. In early November, Jiangyin was eventually captured as Chinese forces retreated. On August 23,

5959-569: The frontline. House to house fighting was common, and in the most intense moments these positions would change hands up to five times a day. In this brutal combat, Chinese soldiers regularly fought to the death even when surrounded, a byproduct of the Japanese Army's habit of taking no prisoners . In overrun positions, Japanese soldiers frequently found dead Chinese soldiers, some with childlike features , clutching weapons as though "their ghosts had returned to continue resistance." In one case,

6060-548: The full advance from Japan. Shanghai was China's largest and most cosmopolitan city, with it being the world's fifth largest city at the time. Shanghai was known as the "Pearl of the Orient" and "Paris of the East", with it being China's main commercial hub and largest port. Dogged Chinese resistance at Shanghai was aimed at stalling the Japanese advance, giving much needed time for the Chinese government to move vital industries to

6161-548: The functions of the Shanghai municipal administration. Su Xiwen formally recognized the Reformed Government and adopting its flag on May 3, 1938. Under the Reformed Government, Su Xiwen continued as head of the Supervisory Yamen until he was replaced by Fu Xiao'an as mayor on October 16, 1938. Battle of Shanghai Japanese victory Official Japanese war records : 61,000+ (42,202+ including at least 11,072 killed in action before November 8. After that, there

SECTION 60

#1732783041042

6262-470: The government announced August 14 would be Air Force Day to raise the morale of the Chinese populace.) From August 15 to 18, the Chinese fought the numerically superior Japanese air force in intense air battles that saw two Japanese squadrons destroyed. China was fighting the air war with every airplane in its possession, some of them purchased second-hand from various countries. It was not able to produce any planes of its own to replace those lost in combat and

6363-463: The incident, the Japanese began sending in reinforcements to Shanghai. Facing the increasing Japanese military presence in Shanghai, Chinese troops were also being deployed to the Shanghai area beginning on 11 August. On 12 August, representatives from the United Kingdom, France, United States and Italy along with Japan and China participated in the joint conference held in Shanghai to discuss

6464-487: The initial inventory of American-made aircraft were gradually lost through attrition. In the Shanghai campaign, the ROCAF is said to have shot down 85 Japanese airplanes and sunk 51 ships, while losing 91 of its own airplanes, just under half of its entire air force at the time. On August 15, the Japanese formed the Shanghai Expeditionary Army (SEF), composed of the 3rd and 11th Divisions , under

6565-462: The interior, while at the same time attempting to bring sympathetic Western powers to China's side. During the fierce three-month battle, the forces of China and Japan fought in downtown Shanghai, in the outlying towns, and on the beaches of the Yangtze River and Hangzhou Bay , where the Japanese had made amphibious landings. Chinese forces were equipped primarily with small-caliber weapons against much greater Japanese air, naval, and armor power. In

6666-454: The lawsuit cases. They would ask for money from the other debased classes like butchers and prostitutes. Such unwritten rule is called dirty regulation ( 陋规 ) . Therefore, the actual income of the Kuai depended on their place of work; Kuai in large cities could easily collect a lot of money and Kuai in rural areas could be as poor as the homeless. Such corruption and extortion were rampant during

6767-541: The magistrate would still send yamen runners directly for the arrest. The institution of the yamen fell victim to the Wuchang Uprising and the Xinhai Revolution , after which warlords often became the ultimate authorities, in spite of Sun Yat-sen 's best efforts to establish a Republic of China covering all of China. Sun Yat-sen tried to establish a form of self-government, or home rule , on

6868-408: The night of October 26, the Chinese began withdrawing from Shanghai's urban center. Because Dachang and other vital suburban towns had been lost already, Chiang Kai-shek ordered the Chinese troops to retreat from Zhabei, Jiangwan (江灣), and other positions that the troops had held for seventy-five days without faltering. However, Chiang ordered one battalion of the 88th Division remain in Zhabei to defend

6969-421: The officials. During the trial, they would stand on both sides of the court to maintain order. They also performed the duties of escorting the prisoner, questioning the suspect and applying minor punishment. They had their own black uniform. Zhuang were comparable to modern security guards. Their main job was to guard the critical areas such as castle gates, the court, prison, and warehouse. They also patrolled on

7070-444: The only heavy weapons the Chinese possessed. Chinese troops could only advance, under the cover of machine gun fire, by getting close enough to the emplacements to kill those within with hand grenades . The Chinese advance was greatly slowed and the element of surprise was lost. Lacking the heavy weapons to destroy the Japanese bunkers directly, Zhang Zhizhong decided to encircle them instead. On August 16, he ordered his men to take

7171-399: The presence of Chinese troops in the city. In Nanjing, Chinese and Japanese representatives met for the last time for final efforts at negotiation. The Japanese demanded that the Chinese withdraw all Peace Preservation Corps from Shanghai and all regular troops from the vicinities of the city. The Chinese insisted that the Japanese demand of a unilateral Chinese withdrawal was unacceptable since

7272-539: The procurement of weapons capable of penetrating Japanese bunkers, before sending the troops in massive waves, which resulted in unsustainable casualties in many divisions right from the start. Zhang was also criticized for his overconfidence and his penchant for holding press conferences for both foreign and Chinese reporters in the cosmopolitan city. Chiang Kai-shek and his staff, the most prominent including Chen Cheng and Gu Zhutong , began taking over command duties from Zhang. Chiang Kai-shek himself would eventually become

7373-421: The province or region. Their yamen would accordingly be specialised according to the functions of the office. The great yamen s of the central government, located in the capital, are more exclusively office complexes. Yamen runner ( 衙役 ) is an occupation which served for yamen ( 衙门 ), the law enforcement department in ancient China. They worked as the lowest class in the government department which made them

7474-480: The reign of Xuande Emperor . The prefects and magistrates just turn a deaf ear on their clerks blackmailing the lower classes. Xuande Emperor described them "licentious, greedy, and insatiably exploitative, [or] degenerate and worthless." Since the social status of yamen runners was low and the income was unstable (usually low), yamen runners were mostly formed by vagrants, especially among Kuai. They were often strong but uneducated . A paper yamen runner ( 纸皂 )

7575-462: The remaining troops of the 98th Division to defend the walled town. One battalion, under lieutenant colonel Yao Ziqing (姚子青), was assigned to the task. The situation in Baoshan was grim, as the Japanese had surrounded the town by September 5. However, Yao ordered his men to defend to the death, pledging to die at his post. Several Japanese assaults on September 4 were repulsed with heavy casualties, but

7676-408: The salary was not enough to live or raise a family on, working for the law enforcement department gave yamen runners some power that could be taken advantage of. The runners would charge a small fee from the litigants to cover the spendings. The prefects and magistrates acquiesced such a charging system as long as the amount is in a reasonable range. The Kuai, however, couldn't contact the litigants in

7777-482: The sandy soil of the coastal region meant that it was difficult to construct sturdy fortifications. Many trenches would collapse due to rain. The Chinese raced against time to construct and repair these defense works despite constant Japanese bombardment. Logistics difficulty also meant it was hard to transport the necessary construction materials to the front line. The Chinese often had to turn to bombed-out houses to obtain bricks, beams, and other such materials. However,

7878-468: The streets surrounding the Japanese strongholds. Every time a street was successfully cleared, the Chinese would set up a sandbag blockade, gradually surrounding each stronghold and closing off all possible routes of escape. The tactic was successful at first and the Chinese were able to destroy many emplacements and outposts in a single day. However, the Japanese then deployed tanks in the broad streets, enabling them to easily repel Chinese attacks and defeat

7979-456: The streets. Most of them were picked from among strong civilians. Kuais' duties included summoning defendants and witnesses to the court. They were usually asked to do the trips for the court , traveling long distances if necessary. During the tax season, they would be sent to remote areas to collect for the government. Therefore, Kuai had more contact with civilians than Zao and Zhuang. They didn't have their own uniform, but were required to hang

8080-436: The takeover of Zhabei. Colonel Xie initially told newspaper Zhongyang Ribao that his men had killed an excess of 100 Japanese troops before retreating. Historian Stephen Robinson has claimed the Japanese lost some 200 men in their effort to take the warehouse. Chiang wanted the Chinese military presence to remain in Shanghai as long as possible to have a positive reflection on the ongoing Nine-Power Treaty Conference that

8181-564: The tensions between the Chinese and Japanese forces in Shanghai. On 10 August, the Japanese Consul General demanded that the Chinese withdraw the Peace Preservation Corps and dismantle their defense works around the city. He also made it clear that the Imperial Japanese Army regarded the shooting of a Japanese officer as humiliating, and that any further incident would escalate the situation. In response to

8282-510: The town must be held at all costs, as it was "the most crucial strategic point." The Japanese had also recognized Luodian's importance, and had sent troops to attack the town on August 23. Two large assaults were repelled by the Chinese 11th Division, who overcame Japanese advantages in armor and artillery by harassing Japanese columns with small scale ambushes and engaging in close-quarters street fighting within Luodian. To defend Luodian,

8383-537: The town of Liuhang (劉行), south of Luodian. Thus, the frontline moved further south onto the banks of the Wusong River. The Japanese aim was to cross the Creek and take the walled town of Dachang (大場), which was the communications link between Chinese troops in downtown Shanghai and the northwest outlying towns. If Dachang fell, Chinese troops would have to forfeit their positions in downtown Shanghai and regions east of

8484-509: The two countries were already fighting a war in North China. At last Mayor Yu made it clear that at most the Chinese government would concede that the Chinese troops would not fire unless fired upon. Japan on the other hand placed all responsibility on China because of Chinese deployment of troops around Shanghai. Negotiation was impossible and there was no alternative other than the spread of war into Central China. Around 9 am on August 13,

8585-417: The village of Tangbeizhai was defended against a Japanese column by a single Chinese soldier, as the rest of his battalion had already been destroyed. From September 11 to October 20, the Japanese army was able to advance only five kilometers. It was in this fighting where the Japanese suffered their heaviest losses of the entire campaign, estimated at 25,000 casualties with some 8,000 killed in action over

8686-595: The way to the township of Liuhe, near the coast where the majority of the Japanese landings occurred. A manoeuvre Japan had also performed in the 1932 battle and therefore should have been expected. The perceived strength of the Chinese response resulted in major reinforcement for Japanese units. The 9th , 13th , and 101st Divisions , the 5th Heavy Artillery Brigade, and a brigade-strength mixture of smaller units were ordered from Japan to Shanghai by Imperial General Headquarters on 11 September 1937. On 16 August, one-hundred kilometers (62 miles) northwest of Shanghai,

8787-686: The wealthy director of the Chinese Bank of Commerce and head of the Shanghai General Chamber of Commerce. Fu was a personal and political enemy of Nationalist general and de facto leader Chiang Kai-shek and had been imprisoned by the Kuomintang in 1927 for refusing to lend Chiang money. After his release from prison, he fled to Kwantung Leased Territory (modern Lüshunkou, Dalian ), and lived several years under Japanese protection, nursing his hatred for Chiang. However, Fu

8888-405: Was a major battle fought between the Empire of Japan and the Republic of China in the Chinese city of Shanghai during the Second Sino-Japanese War . It lasted from August 13, 1937, to November 26, 1937, and was arguably the single largest and longest battle of the entire war, with it even regarded by some historians as the first battle of World War II . It resulted in the Japanese capture of

8989-495: Was always running low on replacement parts and supplies. Japan, in contrast, had a robust aviation industry able to design and manufacture technologically advanced planes and could easily make good their losses. Thus, it was impossible for China to sustain an air war with Japan, however, the Chinese Air Force were given a much-needed lifeline with many new replacement fighter aircraft under the new Sino-Soviet Treaty as

9090-463: Was death." Zhang Zhizhong's initial plan was to have the numerically superior Chinese forces attack the Japanese by surprise and push them into the Huangpu River, then blockade the coast to deny the Japanese the opportunity to land reinforcements at the Huangpu wharves between Yangshupu and Hongkou . The 88th Division was to attack Japanese army headquarters near Zhabei , and the 87th Division

9191-471: Was halted, and had cost the Guangxi divisions over 2,000 casualties including dozens of officers. Following the failed counteroffensive, Matsui ordered his divisions to push to Zoumatang Creek. The Chinese, having been exhausted by the combat through October, had begun withdrawing their troops to a defensive line behind Suzhou Creek . The Japanese, aided by their tanks and aircraft, seized two bridges across

9292-421: Was however unarmed at the time of the shooting, having left his sidearm at the headquarters. Historian Peter Harmsen purported the so-called shootout to in fact be a staged scene to coverup the murder of the two Japanese naval personnel by Chinese soldiers masquerading as Peace Preservation Corps. It is still unknown whether Ōyama attempted to enter the military airport under higher orders. The incident heightened

9393-520: Was in session in Brussels , with the hopes for possible intervention from Western powers. The rest of the Chinese troops crossed the Suzhou Creek and regrouped to engage the Japanese troops. Chiang's original plan was to fight in areas south of the Suzhou Creek and inflict as many Japanese casualties as possible. However, through three months of intense fighting, Chinese troop strength had been greatly reduced. Most units had their strength halved, and as

9494-453: Was made to defend the entire town to the death, a tactic which greatly accelerated the attrition rate within the Chinese ranks. The casualty rate of General Chen Cheng's army group was more than fifty percent. By the end of September, the Chinese had been almost bled dry and were forced to give up Luodian. By October 1, the Japanese had increased troop strength in the Shanghai region to more than two hundred thousand. Japanese troops also invaded

9595-399: Was not unheard of for the Chinese to lose an entire garrison to such bombardments . However, the Chinese would reinforce almost immediately to counter the Japanese troops who had just made their landing after the bombardment. In the two weeks that followed, the Chinese and Japanese troops fought bitter battles in the numerous towns and villages along the coast. The Chinese troops fending off

9696-515: Was provided by a tax levied on all imports and exports through the Japanese front lines into and out of Shanghai, and Su was assisted by a number of experts provided by the South Manchurian Railroad Company. Su promised to purge the city of both communist and Kuomintang elements. However, neither Su nor his Great Way Government were regarded seriously by Japanese political agents, who looked with dismay and contempt at

9797-448: Was stubborn even in the face of overwhelming firepower. During the night, Chinese soldiers mined the roads connecting the coastal towns to Luodian and engaged in night combat to cut off Japanese advance troops. At daybreak, the Chinese would garrison the foremost defensive lines with comparatively few troops in order to reduce casualties resulting from intense Japanese bombardments. The Chinese would then emerge from rear positions to engage

9898-528: Was the administrative office or residence of a local bureaucrat or mandarin in imperial China , Korea , and Vietnam . A yamen can also be any governmental office or body headed by a mandarin, at any level of government: the offices of one of the Six Ministries is a yamen , but so is a prefectural magistracy. The term has been widely used in China for centuries, but appeared in English during

9999-602: Was the single largest urban battle prior to the Battle of Stalingrad , which occurred almost 5 years later. Since the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 followed by the Japanese attack of Shanghai in 1932, there had been ongoing armed conflicts between China and Japan without an official declaration of war. These conflicts finally escalated in July 1937, when the Marco Polo Bridge Incident triggered

10100-514: Was to attack the reinforced Kung-ta Textile Mill, where the Japanese naval command was located. Zhang estimated it would take one week to achieve these objectives; however, the operation ran into trouble when his troops were fought to a standstill just outside the Shanghai International Settlement . Japanese strongholds were fortified with thick concrete, barbed wire, machine guns and were resistant to 150mm howitzers ,

10201-644: Was unwilling to head the new government himself, and recommended Su Xiwen , a professor of religious philosophy and political science at the Chizhi University in Jiangwan . Su was a graduate of Waseda University in Tokyo and was known for his conservative political views. Su was also known for his views on Buddhist - Daoist syncretism , which influenced the name of the new administration—the "Great Way" referring to Eastern philosophy 's concept of

#41958