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37-561: Dai Commandery was a commandery ( jùn ) of the state of Zhao established c.  300   BC and of northern imperial Chinese dynasties until the time of the Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty (r. AD   581–604). It occupied lands in what is now Hebei , Shanxi , and Inner Mongolia . Its seat was usually at Dai or Daixian (near present-day Yuzhou in Hebei ), although it

74-686: A chancellor ( xiàng ). Parallel to these, some Qin commanderies were continued, placed under a governor appointed directly by the central government. By the Eastern Han dynasty, the commanderies were subordinated to a new division , the province ( zhōu ). — establishing a three-tier system composed of provinces, commanderies, and counties . Based upon legendary accounts of the Yellow Emperor 's Nine Provinces which were geographic rather than formal political areas, there were initially 13 provinces and roughly 100 commanderies. China

111-822: The Battle of Kunyang in June–July 23 AD. Upon hearing of this event, the irregular militias of Zhuang Ben and Zhuang Chun captured Chang'an in October 23, plundering the capital and killing Wang Mang. The various rebel armies subsequently fought each other to gain full control over the empire. In 25 AD, Liu Xiu was crowned as Emperor Guangwu of Han in Luoyang . The Red Eyebrows were defeated by Liu Xiu's forces in 27 AD, and he also destroyed other rival claimants as well as separatist regimes including Wang Lang 's Zhao state , Gongsun Shu 's Chengjia empire, and warlord Wei Ao in

148-543: The Duke of Zhou as his model for a good ruler. His policies were often not implemented by the old bureaucracy who resented his radical reforms. In contrast, the reforms found some acclaim among the empire's peasants. Soon after its inauguration, Wang's regime was destabilized by several natural disasters , including the Yellow River changing course, which resulted in massive floods. Plagues of locusts further worsened

185-526: The Qin conquest of Zhao , Zhao Jia attempted to regroup at Dai, declaring himself its king. This Kingdom of Dai was ended by Qin in 222   BC, just prior to the declaration of the Qin Empire two years later. Dai Commandery was one of the divisions of the Qin Empire . Its seat—then known as Daixian—continued to be near present-day Yuzhou . During the interregnum following Qin's collapse , Dai

222-656: The circuit had been introduced, bringing back a three-tier system). In the Warring States period , the chief administrative officers of the areas were known as commandery administrators ( Chinese : 郡守 ; pinyin : jùnshǒu ; lit. 'defender of the jun'). In the Han dynasty , the position of junshou was renamed grand administrator ( 太守 ; tàishǒu ; 'grand defender'). Both terms are also translated as "governor". A grand administrator drew an annual salary of 2,000 dan ( 石 ) of grain according to

259-437: The major realms . Despite having smaller populations and ranking lower on the official hierarchies, the commanderies were larger and boasted greater military strength than the counties. As each state's territory gradually took shape in the 5th- to 3rd-century BCE Warring States period, the commanderies at the borders flourished. This gave rise to a two-tier administrative system, with counties subordinate to commanderies. Each of

296-493: The pinzhi ( 品秩 ; pǐnzhì ) system of administrative rank. Many former grand administrators were promoted to the posts of the Three Ducal Ministers or Nine Ministers later in their careers. Xin dynasty Chinese dynasties were typically named after the fief of their founders, and this reading is consistent with Wang Mang's pre-imperial position as Marquess of Xin. In 1950, C.B. Sargent suggested that

333-543: The "Bright Hall", Wang Mang observed the change of the seasons in accordance with the Confucian traditions. He also opened up posts at the imperial academies, so far dominated by New Text Confucianism , for scholars who supported the Confucian Old Texts . Sinologist Hans van Ess has speculated that this was Wang Mang's attempt at achieving a better balance between the competing schools of thought, although

370-719: The 20s. The most powerful factions along the Yellow River reorganized into rebel armies, known as the Red Eyebrows . The insurgents allied with discontented nobles and descendants of the former imperial clan, resulting in large-scale civil war by 19 AD. Wang Mang was forced to shift troops from other areas to deal with the Red Eyebrows, whereupon the Protectorate of the Western Regions was overrun by

407-572: The Han dynasty had lost most of their prestige. Regardless, much of the old bureaucracy and nobility was still loyal to the Han dynasty, but these loyalists did not openly oppose the establishment of the Xin regime. In contrast, relations with the nomadic Xiongnu confederation quickly deteriorated, and the latter intended to intervene in China around 10/11 AD. Wang responded by mobilizing 300,000 soldiers along

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444-745: The Xiongnu. Smaller rebellions broke out in other parts of China. The "Troops from the Lower Yangtze " operated along this river, while two insurgent bands in Hubei were recruited by Han loyalists. Led by Liu Bosheng , they became known as the Lulin . As civil war engulfed the entire Xin Empire, Wang's loyalist armies fought hard to keep the rebels at bay. The Xin armies scored several victories, but were completely defeated by Han restorationist armies in

481-522: The administration were merged into one level, typically rendered in English as prefecture, marking the end of the commandery. Some Emperors to referred to this level of administration as a jun ("commandery"), but most used zhou ("province") and the political function was the same, regardless. By the end of the Tang dynasty the term jun saw no more use in China (and a new higher tier of administrative unit,

518-568: The basis for their own administrative divisions. During the Eastern Zhou 's Spring and Autumn period from the 8th to 5th centuries BCE, the larger and more powerful of the Zhou 's vassal states —including Qin , Jin and Wei —began annexing their smaller rivals. These new lands were not part of their original fiefs and were instead organized into counties ( xiàn ). Eventually, commanderies were developed as marchlands between

555-515: The central government, restoring the failing economy, weakening the powerful noble families, and improving the livelihood of the empire's peasants. The reforms enjoyed some initial successes, and provided a much-needed legitimacy boost to the Xin dynasty. At the same time, the reforms weakened the former imperial clan, as most of the redistributed resources had belonged to the Liu family. Furthermore, Wang patronized education based on Confucianism , taking

592-571: The commandery seat to Daixian (near present-day Yuzhou , Hebei ). During China's Sixteen Kingdoms period, both Later Yan and the Northern Wei had commanderies named Dai. Northern Wei's lay to the west, with its seat at Pingcheng (present-day Datong , Shanxi ). Separate from these, Tuoba Yilu was declared " Duke of Dai " ( 代 公 ) by the Jin in AD   310 and (vassal) " King of Dai " by

629-668: The emperor himself probably preferred the Confucian New Texts. Historians who lived during the Han dynasty ridiculed Wang Mang's movement to return to the order of the Zhou dynasty as neither practical nor successful, but the Xin dynasty's attempted reforms served as an inspiration for later emperors. According to Li Feng, Wang Mang would have been "the greatest reformer in Chinese history" if his regime had survived. Shijianguo ( 始建國 ; Shǐ Jìan Guó ; 'Start to establish

666-410: The empire. Following the death of Emperor Ping of Han in 6 AD, Wang Mang cemented his control over the empire. Rebellions against his de facto rule were crushed in 6 and 7 AD. Two years later, Wang usurped the throne and officially proclaimed the Xin (literally the "New dynasty"). Though he enjoyed no great support among the empire's political class, Wang's ascension was generally tolerated because

703-433: The government and officials would audit these reports. The penalty for evading this tax was one year of hard labor and confiscation of the entirety of a person's property. Because it caused popular discontent, this income tax was abolished in 22 CE. He also nationalized farmland, and restored the government's old monopoly on the salt and iron industries. To further strengthen the empire's struggling economy and restore

740-436: The government's fiscal stability, the Xin dynasty also implemented a new system to stabilize market prices, replaced the gold currency with a bronze currency, and forced nobles of marquis and lower rank to exchange all their gold for copper coins. These policies allowed the nearly-broke government to regain much-needed funds, and actually improved the economy, but caused great resentment among the nobility. Wang Mang also reduced

777-616: The imperial clan declined. In contrast, the Wang family grew powerful during the rule of Emperor Cheng of Han , and its leading member Wang Mang used his influence to act as regent for several young puppet emperors. In contrast to other Wang family members who were content to rule the empire by influencing the Han emperors, Wang Mang had greater ambitions. He embarked on a programme of building and learning, creating much positive publicity and propaganda for himself. He openly presented himself as champion of Confucian virtues, and as guiding force of

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814-410: The name of the dynasty should be read as meaning "new", which J. J. L. Duyvendak rejected out of hand. Chauncey S. Goodrich argued that it would be possible to assign a semantic reading to xin , but that it ought to be read as renewed or renewal , not simply new . After the death of Emperor Wu of Han , the ruling Liu family was increasingly beset by factional struggles. As result, the power of

851-565: The nobles, strengthen the central government, reform the economy, and improve the peasants' situation, Wang Mang redistributed land from the rich to those who owned nothing, introduced new taxes on slave owning, prohibited the sale of slaves, and implemented limits on how much farmland one family was allowed to own. He established the first income tax through a 10% tax of net earnings from wild herb and fruit collection, fishing, shepherding, and various nonagricultural activities and forms of trading. People were obligated to report their taxes to

888-430: The northern border and prevented the Xiongnu from invading China. The continuing disputes with the northern confederation resulted in Wang setting up a rival Xiongnu government in 19 AD, while maintaining the great army at the border. This drained the Xin dynasty's resources, weakening its grip on the rest of the empire. The new emperor initiated several radical social and political reforms. These aimed at strengthening

925-429: The northwest. By 37 AD, the Han dynasty was fully restored. Wang Mang implemented several reforms, systematically transforming the government of the Han dynasty based on his understanding of the Confucian classics and what turned out to be his faulty beliefs about the ancient Western Zhou 's government system. Sinologist Li Feng described these reforms as " socialist and imperialist combined". In order to weaken

962-523: The same court in 315. This Xianbei Kingdom of Dai lasted until 376, and its dynasts were responsible for the later state of Northern Wei. It held some lands in northern Shanxi and Hebei but was mostly to their north in what is now Inner Mongolia , with their capital at Shengle (northwest of present-day Horinger ). Dai Commandery continued until its abolishment under the Wen Emperor of Sui , who replaced it in 585 with Dai Prefecture , whose seat

999-633: The seat at Daixian near present-day Yuzhou and continued the Qin-era counties (renaming "New Pingshu County" to simply " Pingshu County "), with the addition of: Under the short-lived Xin dynasty established by Wang Mang , several of the Han counties were renamed. Under the Eastern Han , Dai Commandery formed part of the province of Youzhou . Its seat—then known as Gaoliu—was southwest of present-day Yanggao in northeastern Shanxi . During China's Three Kingdoms period , Wei returned

1036-402: The situation, and widespread famines broke out. The Xin dynasty's economic policies failed to solve the ensuing crisis, and Wang Mang quickly lost the support which he had had among the peasantry as the latter struggled for survival. The desperate peasants in the eastern parts of the empire soon turned to banditry. The bandit groups grew in strength, and numbered tens of thousands of members by

1073-662: The six former states who were unwilling to submit to Qin rule. As a result, Qin Shi Huangdi set up 36 commanderies in the Qin Empire, each subdivided into counties. This established the first two-tier administrative system known to exist in China. When the Han dynasty triumphed over Chu in 206 BCE, the Zhou feudal system was initially reinstated, with Emperor Gaozu recognizing nearly independent kings and granting large territories to his relatives. These two sets of kingdoms were placed under hereditary rulers assisted by

1110-499: The states' territories was by now comparatively larger, hence there was no need for the military might of a commandery in the inner regions where counties were established. The border commanderies' military and strategic significance became more important than those of counties. Following the unification of China in 221 BCE under the Qin Empire , the Qin government still had to engage in military activity because there were rebels from among

1147-491: The status of foreign vassal rulers in an attempt to strengthen the Xin empire's control over its border regions. In an attempt to return to an idealized past, the Xin regime also implemented architectural changes to the capital Chang'an. The "Nine Temples" were constructed where the emperor worshipped the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors , breaking with the Han dynasty's tradition to worship one's own ancestors. At

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1184-403: Was at Guangwu or Yanmen (present-day Daixian , Shanxi ). Jun (country subdivision) A commandery ( Chinese : 郡 ; pinyin : jùn ) was a historical administrative division of China that was in use from the Eastern Zhou (c. 7th century BCE) until the early Tang dynasty (c. 7th century CE). Several neighboring countries adopted Chinese commanderies as

1221-480: Was greatly divided during the following five centuries, during the Jin and Northern and Southern dynasties period. The number of administrative units drastically increased due to intense warfare, fluid political boundaries, forced migrations, widespread population loss, and the loss of central government control in many areas particularly during the Sixteen Kingdoms . Although the legacy three-tier system

1258-689: Was moved to Gaoliu (present-day Yanggao in Shanxi ) during the Eastern Han . The name derives from the White Di kingdom of Dai , conquered by the Zhao family of Jin . Dai Commandery was first established around 300   BC during China's Warring States period by the state of Zhao 's King Yong , posthumously known as the Wuling ("Martial-&-Numinous") King. The commandery seat—then known as Dai—was southwest of present-day Yuzhou in Hebei . It

1295-675: Was one of the Eighteen Kingdoms established by Xiang Yu . It was ruled by Zhao Xie and Chun Yu . Under the Han , Dai Prefecture formed part of the province of Bingzhou and oversaw 18 counties, both within and beyond the Great Wall . Along with Yunzhong and Yanmen , it also formed part of the Principality of Dai , used as an imperial appanage . The Book of Han records Dai Commandery having 278,754 people living in 56,771 households. The Han administration kept

1332-400: Was still in formal effect, rulers of various kingdoms had defined and re-defined provinces until they became increasingly sub-divided, blurring the distinction between provinces and commanderies and reflecting the chaos of China at the time. China was finally re-united by Emperor Wen of the Sui (581–618) in 589. As there were already over 100 provinces, the province and commandery levels of

1369-475: Was the former capital of the independent state of Dai , which had been conquered by King Yong's ancestors around 476   BC. He created Dai Commandery along with its companion commanderies of Yanmen and Yunzhong to consolidate his conquests from invasions of the Loufan ( t   樓煩 , s   楼烦 , Lóufán ) and " forest nomads " ( 林 胡 , Línhú ) in 306 and 304   BC. Following

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