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80-703: In 1918, during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War , it was captured by Imperial British forces . At the time it was used as part of the Nablus – Es Salt – Amman road. After 1991 it was used only for goods transported by truck between Israel, the West Bank and Jordan until its closure for security reasons sometime between 2002 and 2005 during the Second Intifada . As of 2014,

160-523: A 45-mile (72 km) front parallel to the canal. By the middle of May the railway had been completed to Romani, making it possible to bring up enough stores and equipment to deploy the 52nd (Lowland) Division there. As soon as they arrived they began to dig trenches in the sand, creating a defensive line with redoubts from Mahemdia near the Mediterranean coast, south to Katib Gannit a high point in front of Romani. Ottoman Army units retaliated to

240-568: A 50,000-strong garrison in the Katia area and obtained authority to build a pipeline to pump fresh Nile water and a railway to transport the infantry divisions and their supplies. He also decided to empty the water cisterns at Moya Harab so the central Sinai route could not again be used by Ottoman columns advancing from Palestine and to maintain some troops at Suez to defend the town. These operations began in February 1916 when construction started on

320-696: A base in the oases a large number of Ottoman troops could threaten the Suez Canal, and control the Sinai Peninsula with the threat of a flank attack . The Australian 2nd Light Horse Brigade and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades of Major General Harry Chauvel 's Australian and New Zealand Mounted Division (Anzac Mounted Division) were ordered to occupy the Romani area the day after the fighting at Katia and Oghratina. Here, 23 miles (37 km) from Kantara, they aggressively patrolled and reconnoitred

400-526: A creditable hunt with Saluki hounds after jackals. During May 1916 Ottoman aircraft flew over the Suez Canal dropping bombs on Port Said which caused 23 casualties. On 18 May, the Ottoman occupied town and aerodrome at El Arish was bombed by order of Colonel W.G.H. Salmond, commander of the 5th Wing, in reprisal for the first Ottoman raids, and on 22 May the Royal Flying Corps bombed all camps on

480-745: A de facto independent state under the Muhammad Ali Dynasty , though it remained de jure part of the Ottoman Empire . The United Kingdom's occupation of Egypt from 1882 severely curtailed Egypt's de facto independence, but did not alter its legal status, with the Egyptian Khedive technically remaining a vassal of the Ottoman Sultan . Seeking to end the British occupation of the country, Khedive Abbas II sided with

560-540: A passive defence of the Suez Canal. Murray had estimated a force of 250,000 could cross the Sinai and that 80,000 troops could be maintained in the Katia area. If such a large Ottoman force were to reach Katia then the British would need a very large force to defend the Suez Canal. British occupation of the oasis area which stretched eastwards from Romani and Katia to Bir el Abd along the ancient silk road would deny drinking water to any Ottoman invasion force. Murray planned

640-485: A period of rest for the Anzac Mounted Division as there were no major battles. However, the mounted troops were busy providing screens for the construction, patrolling newly occupied areas and carrying out reconnaissances to augment aerial photographs to improve maps of the newly occupied areas. During one of the patrols, on 19 August, a group of 68 Ottoman soldiers was found half dead from thirst by

720-556: A reliable source of water for an advance to El Arish. To provide this, the British Royal Engineers built a railway and pipeline across the Sinai Peninsula to El Arish under the leadership of Brigadier-General Everard Blair . From the middle of August to the Battle for Magdhaba on 23 December 1916, British forces waited for this necessary infrastructure to be put in place. These four months have often been described as

800-535: A sledge–hammer; and additional lengths of pipe were added if necessary. The ordinary General Service "Lift and Force Pump" was then attached. This arrangement proved so efficient that "Spear Points" were issued to every Squadron in the Division, and the RE Troops carried a number of them. Our men were thus enabled to get water at any of the hods in the desert in a very short space of time. [ sic ] Once

880-838: A war correspondent in the area until Captain Frank Hurley , the first Australian Official Photographer, arrived in August 1917 after visiting the Western Front. Henry Gullett , the first Official War Correspondent, arrived in November 1917. The long-lasting effect of this campaign was the Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire , when France won the mandate for Syria and Lebanon , while the British Empire won

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960-688: A well-boring plant, gyns erected on the wells, the water wells and pumping equipment at Jifjafa. They captured an Austrian engineer officer and 33 men, four of whom were wounded, and killed six Ottoman soldiers. On 9 June 1916 units from No. 2 Section of the Canal Defences formed the Mukhsheib column, consisting of part of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, 900 camels, non-fighting units and camel transport escorted by one squadron of 9th Light Horse Regiment and 10 Bikaner Camel Corps. The engineers drained pools and cisterns of five million gallons of water in

1040-734: Is an average of eighteen planes in the air all day long, just over our heads. The din is indescribable, but the horses never look up, or otherwise take the slightest notice of the planes. The life of a pilot, computed in flying hours, is pitifully short; many of them are killed while learning. My wife is working as voluntary aid at a hospital in Ismailia, and she and her associates are constantly making shrouds for these boys that have perhaps made one little mistake in their first solo flight, and have paid for it with their lives. The army will do anything in reason for these youngsters. We are ordered to let them have riding–horses and we occasionally turn out quite

1120-826: Is currently out of use. In 2014, Palestinian authorities were negotiating with Jordan the possibilities of reopening traffic between the two sides. Sinai and Palestine Campaign Force in Egypt (to March 1916) Egyptian Expeditionary Force Fourth Army Yildirim Army Group 1,200,000 (total) January 1915: over 150,000 men September 1918: 467,650 total number of personnel Estimated 200,000–400,000 January 1918: [REDACTED] 61,877 battle casualties 5,981+ died of disease c.  100,000+ evacuated sick French and Italian casualties: Unknown [REDACTED] 190,200 battle casualties ~40,900 died of disease [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Unknown total The Sinai and Palestine campaign

1200-717: The 10th Indian Division (Major General A. Wilson), the 11th Indian Division , the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade , and the Bikaner Camel Corps , as well as elements from the Indian Mountain Artillery and the Egyptian Army Artillery . In addition, several British and French warships in the canal served as floating batteries and there were several aircraft available for reconnaissance. Following

1280-563: The 5th Light Horse Regiment (2nd Light Horse Brigade) who, rather than attacking them, gave them water and their rides. The commanding officer and his men led the Ottoman Army soldiers on their horses for 5 miles (8.0 km) through deep sand until met by transport. "This was a very queer sight and worthy of a moving picture [of these] poor sacrifices of the Huns." British infantry was brought forward to fortify and provide garrisons along

1360-749: The Armistice of Mudros in 1918, leading to the cession of Ottoman Syria . Fighting began in January 1915, when a German-led Ottoman force invaded the Sinai Peninsula , then occupied by the British as part of a "Protectorate" Protectorate of Egypt , to unsuccessfully raid the Suez Canal . After the Gallipoli campaign , British Empire veterans formed the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) and Ottoman Empire veterans formed

1440-778: The Fourth Army , to fight for the Sinai Peninsula in 1916. In January 1917 the newly formed Desert Column completed the recapture of the Sinai at the Battle of Rafa . This recapture of substantial Egyptian territory was followed in March and April by two EEF defeats on Ottoman territory, at the First and Second Battles of Gaza in southern Palestine . After a period of stalemate in Southern Palestine from April to October 1917, General Edmund Allenby captured Beersheba from

1520-464: The Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade , the Bikaner Camel Corps , three batteries of Indian mountain artillery and one Egyptian artillery battery. These were supported by the guns of Allied ships in the canal. Opposing them were around 25,000 men, including the 25th Division . The Ottoman Empire demonstrated its interest in being reinstated in Egypt in 1915 when Ottoman forces attacked British forces in Egypt. The Germans also helped to foment unrest among

1600-697: The Israeli army during the Six-Day War in 1967. Right after the war, in August 1967, Israeli Minister of Defense Moshe Dayan allowed the uncontrolled traffic of goods between the Palestinians and Jordan using the ford of Damiya, as a way of avoiding the economic collapse of the West Bank and for avoiding Palestinian discontent, since the Israeli markets were not open yet to Palestinian produce. This

1680-610: The Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon were created to administer the captured territories. The campaign was generally not well known or understood during the war. In Britain, the public thought of it as a minor operation, a waste of precious resources which would be better spent on the Western Front, while the peoples of India were more interested in the Mesopotamian campaign and the occupation of Baghdad . Australia did not have

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1760-533: The Nile via the Sweet Water Canal to the main gates and sluices near there. At the beginning of hostilities between Britain and the Ottoman Empire in November 1914, the 30,000-strong British defence force evacuated the part of the Sinai Peninsula that was east of the canal, concentrating their defences on the western side of the canal. The British force comprised the 10th , and 11th Indian Divisions ,

1840-513: The Senussi in what is now Libya , when they attacked western Egypt and threatened the Sudan during the Senussi campaign . Egypt was neither an independent ally nor a member of the British Empire and as such held a unique position amongst the belligerents. The recently appointed High Commissioner Sir Reginald Wingate and Murray agreed that Egypt's contributions would be restricted to the use of

1920-763: The 25 miles (40 km) stretch of 4-foot 8 inch standard gauge Sinai railway and water pipeline from Qantara/Kantara to Qatiya/Katia. By the end of March or early in April 16 miles (26 km) of track, including sidings, had been laid. The intact water cistern and wells on the central road across Sinai still enabled Ottoman Army forces to threaten the Canal at any time. Between 11 and 15 April, 25 Bikaner Camel Corps, 10 Engineers with 12 men from 8th Light Horse Regiment and 117 men from 9th Light Horse Regiment (30 light horsemen armed as Lancers), with 127 Egyptian Camel Transport Corps travelled 52 miles (84 km) to destroy

2000-495: The 3rd Infantry Division, with Bedouin irregulars, German machine-gunners and Austrian artillery from Pasha 1. Romani was defended by the 52nd (Lowland) Division, and the 1st, and 2nd Light Horse Brigades. The canal was defended by the 5th Mounted, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades and the 5th Light Horse Regiment. Sustained fighting began in the early hours and by about 11:00 on 4 August,

2080-439: The 5th Wing under Colonel W. G. H. Salmond. The planes flew out to sea until east of El Arish, then turned inland to approach from the southeast. Two Ottoman aircraft on the ground and two of the ten aircraft hangars were set on fire; bombs hit four others and troops were also attacked. Three British aircraft were forced to land, one in the sea. The Egyptian Expeditionary Force required huge amounts of ammunition and supplies and

2160-526: The Anzac Mounted Division on 9 August, at the extremity of British Empire lines of communication . This was the first substantial Allied victory against the Ottoman Empire in World War I, ending the Defence of the Suez Canal campaign. The Canal was never again threatened by land forces during the remainder of the war. The Allies then went on the offensive for seven months, pushing the Ottoman Army back across

2240-632: The Austrian, German and Ottoman force had pushed the two Australian brigades back to a point where the 52nd (Lowland) Division in their trenches were able to attack the attackers' right flank, and the New Zealand Mounted Rifle and 5th Mounted Brigades arrived in time to extend the Australian Light Horse's line. The Ottoman advance was stopped by the combined Allied fire from the infantry and mounted troops, deep sand,

2320-465: The Canal and north of El Ferdan Station. The yeomanry 5th Mounted Brigade were guarding the water pipeline and railway being built out into the desert towards Romani. While the three regiments were widely dispersed, squadrons were surprised and overwhelmed at Katia and Oghratina , east of Romani, suffering the loss of about two squadrons. Fighting for the oases area during a raid on Katia and Oghratina demonstrated its importance to both sides. From

2400-637: The Canal. He moved to the headquarters of the Fourth Army in Ain Sofar in August, then to the new headquarters in Jerusalem , and waited for the German specialists. However, the Ottoman line of communication was extended towards Egypt, with the completion of the 100-mile (160 km) section of the Ottoman railway to Beersheba, which was opened on 17 October 1915. Von Kressenstein's raids confirmed

2480-602: The Europeans who controlled both these industries. In the autumn of 1917 GHQ was transferred from Cairo to the front leaving garrison battalions. This move took the commander in chief of the EEF, who was responsible for martial law, out of touch with the civil authorities, and unrest in Egypt became serious during the winter of 1917/18. By 1917, 15,000 Egyptian volunteers were serving in the Egyptian Army, deployed mainly in

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2560-710: The Force in Egypt in August 1914 were shipped to France. By October 1914, the 9th (Sirhind) Brigade was under orders to deploy to France but was retained until the 22nd (Lucknow) Brigade arrived. The following forces were promised and on their way to Egypt in October 1914: (total force 70,000) In training During April the 29th Indian Brigade and the East Lancashire Division were sent to Gallipoli. The 2nd Mounted (Yeomanry) Division arrived to take their place by 29 April. Sent to Gallipoli as part of

2640-562: The III Corps. The Ottoman defences were captured by 8 November, and the pursuit began. EEF victories followed, at the Battle of Mughar Ridge , 10 to 14 November, and the Battle of Jerusalem , 17 November to 30 December. Serious losses on the Western Front in March 1918, during Erich Ludendorff 's German spring offensive , forced the British Empire to send reinforcements from the EEF. The advance stalled until Allenby's force resumed

2720-603: The Israeli side is part of a closed military area. The Hebrew Bible mentions a town called Adam near Zaretan in the Jordan Valley ( Joshua 3:16 ). Most scholars identify nearby Tall Damiyah , called by some Tel Adam in Modern Hebrew , with the historical and biblical city of Adama , with the US-American biblical scholar William F. Albright offering the theory that Adama/Admah and Adam are one and

2800-637: The Jordanians blew up parts of this bridge, but it was repaired at some later point. During the Jordanian Civil War (better known as Black September) in 1970, the bridge was again closed for several days during the fighting between the Palestinians and the Jordanian Army. The Jordanians repaired the bridge in early 1975 after it had been damaged by floods, and performed some amendments in 1976. The Jordanian metal bridge still stands but

2880-581: The Mediterranean Expeditionary Force Sent to Basra Sent to Aden (to defend Yemen against a possible attack) The total force of 69,765 personnel consisted of: By November 1915, the Force in Egypt had been reduced largely to a training and reinforcement camp. Although there were 60,000 troops in Egypt, these were mainly details of formations fighting at Gallipoli and ANZACs in training. Western Frontier Force (Major General A. Wallace) Some South African troops and

2960-755: The Ottoman Empire upon the latter's entry into the First World War on the side of the Central Powers. This prompted the United Kingdom to depose Abbas, terminate the still persisting legal fiction of Ottoman sovereignty over Egypt, and declare the re-establishment of the Sultanate of Egypt, with Hussein Kamel , uncle of the deposed Khedive, as Sultan . The sultanate was to be administered as a British protectorate , with all matters pertinent to

3040-492: The Ottoman Empire, after which the Force in Egypt faced a direct threat from Ottoman forces, which was realised in February 1915 with a raid on the Suez Canal . This threat remained until 1916 when the British forces went on the offensive. The composition of the force changed several times due to the varying availability forces. By the end of 1914, the forces deployed in defence of the Suez Canal under Maxwell totaled approximately 30,000 troops. The main elements of this force were

3120-699: The Sinai Peninsula, fighting the Battles of Magdhaba and Rafa before being stopped on Ottoman soil in southern Palestine at the First Battle of Gaza in March 1917. In early June 1916, the Sharifian Army of Sherif Hussein , Amir of Mecca, launched attacks on the Ottoman garrisons in Mecca and Jeddah in the south western Arabian Peninsula . Jeddah fell quickly allowing the Royal Navy to use

3200-443: The Sudan with three battalions in the EEF, along with 98,000 labourers, 23,000 of whom were serving overseas. The number of Egyptian enlistments could not be increased as conscription could threaten the production of much needed food and cotton and the stability of Egypt. Also by this time, much of the railway lines in Egypt that were not crucial to the production of cotton, sugar, cereals and forages, had already been lifted and used on

3280-422: The Suez Canal, from shortly after midnight on 3/4 August until the invading force retired during the late morning and afternoon of 5 August. The Central Powers force of Austrians, Germans and Ottomans, led by Kress von Kressenstein, sought to stop the British Empire reclaiming the Egyptian territory of the Sinai Peninsula and cut the Suez Canal by bringing it within artillery range. It numbered 12,000, mainly from

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3360-483: The Suez Canal. Colonel Kress von Kressenstein did all he could to keep the British occupied, launching an attack on 8 April 1915 when a mine was placed in the Suez Canal, which was located and disabled by a patrol, and between 5 and 13 May 1915 he personally led a charge. During the Gallipoli campaign these tactics were abandoned. Von Kressenstein also demanded German special forces, which were promised to arrive in February 1916, to prepare another expedition against

3440-435: The United Kingdom formed the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Archibald Murray with headquarters at Ismailia. After the evacuation from Gallipoli the total British force in Egypt was nearly 400,000 men in 13 infantry and mounted divisions, a force regarded as the strategic reserve for the whole Empire. In March 1916, Sir Archibald Murray took command of all these forces which were united into

3520-450: The Wadi Mukhsheib, sealed the cisterns to prevent them refilling during next season's rains and returned on 14 June. At the same time a detachment of Middlesex Yeomanry advanced to Moiya Harab. With the central Sinai route now denied to them, Ottoman forces could only advance towards the Suez Canal along the northern coast. Kress von Kressenstein launched a surprise attack on Easter Sunday, also Saint George's Day , 23 April 1916, east of

3600-482: The area. The Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade arrived at Romani on 28 May 1916. Until the railway and water pipeline to Pelusium Station and Romani were built, all water, food (mainly bully beef and biscuits, as packing and transport methods did not allow fresh meat and vegetables), shelters, other equipment and ammunition had to be carried to this position by the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps. With flies attracted to horse litter, etc., provision of safe sanitation

3680-455: The atmosphere into a haze of floating sand particles flung about by a hot southerly wind. The ANZAC troops and their commanders, unused to the conditions, suffered considerably from heatstroke and thirst during these early patrols. One such patrol, returning during the hottest part of the day after a sleepless night far from base, and very little water, suffered casualties of 160 men who collapsed from heat exhaustion. An important innovation in

3760-406: The bed of the stream to the keystone , twenty feet." Still visible are ruins of several consecutive bridges: the stone bridge built by the Mamluk sultan Baibars in the 13th century, blown up by Haganah forces during Operation Markolet (known as the Night of the bridges ) on the night of 16–17 June 1946; a British bridge built soon after, and a Jordanian one from the 1950s, both destroyed by

3840-451: The brackish water was found, a medical officer assessed it as either drinking water, horse water or not fit for horses, and signs were erected. In June, the 1st Light Horse Brigade carried out reconnaissances to Bir Bayud, Sagia and Oghratina, to Bir el Abd, Hod el Ge'eila, Hod um el Dhauanin and Hod el Mushalfat. Another routine reconnaissance by 2nd Light Horse Brigade took place on 9 July to El Salmana. Just ten days later, El Salmana

3920-429: The canal posed a number of problems, with its sheer size alone making it hard to control. There was no road from Cairo , while only one railway track crossed the 30 miles (48 km) of desert from Cairo to Ismaïlia on the canal before branching north to Port Said and south to Suez . Control of the central area around Ismaïlia was of great strategic importance because these three canal towns relied on fresh water from

4000-427: The canal, the rest of the advance party abandoning attempts to cross as a result of the strong British defence by 30,000 men of the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade and the Bikaner Camel Corps supported by Egyptian Army and Indian mountain artillery. The British then amassed troops at the scene which made another crossing impossible. The Ottoman companies held their positions until the evening of 3 February 1915, when

4080-444: The commanding officer ordered them to withdraw. The retreat proceeded "orderly, first into a camp ten km east of Ismailia". Subsequently, Ottoman advance troops and outposts were maintained on the Sinai peninsula on a line between El Arish and Nekhl , with forces at Gaza and Beersheba. During the next few months Kress von Kressenstein commanded mobile units and launched a series of raids and attacks in an attempt to disrupt traffic on

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4160-440: The conclusion of the Battle of Romani on 12 August 1916, the Ottoman Army had been pushed back to its forward position at Bir el Abd, the last oasis in the series stretching from the Romani area. The Ottomans' main forward base was pushed back to El Arish, with a fortified advanced post at Bir el Mazar, where a small group of wells which reliably provided water. El Arish was the target of an air raid on 18 June 1916 by 11 aircraft of

4240-471: The country's railway and Egyptian personnel. However, Maxwell had proclaimed on 6 November 1914 that Egypt would not be required to aid Britain's war effort. Martial law allowed the British administration to control foreign European residents, monitor foreign agents and intern dangerous persons who were the subjects of hostile nations. The powers were also used to police prostitution and the sale of alcohol. The Capitulations , however provided some protection to

4320-485: The end of 1915 General Sir John Maxwell, with headquarters at Cairo, had responsibility for troops in the Egyptian Delta, the Western Desert and the Sudan and administered martial law over the whole region including the Suez Canal. The British War Office controlled the Levant Base which was responsible for administering British Empire forces in Salonika, Gallipoli, Mesopotamia and India, and had its headquarters at Alexandria. The retreating forces on Gallipoli and divisions from

4400-426: The getting of water, which enabled the mounted units to operate more effectively over wide areas of rocky desert areas and sand dunes on reconnaissance, was the Spear Point, developed by Australian Engineers designed to be attached to a pump: A 2 ½ inch pipe was pointed, perforated and covered with a sheet of fine perforated brass. This was driven down into the water area by means of a small pulley bar and monkey, or by

4480-587: The impracticality, identified by Lord Kitchener , Secretary of State for War , in November 1914, of defending the Suez Canal from the western side. Near the end of 1915, with the Gallipoli campaign drawing to an end, Cabinet authorised new positions to be established in the desert about 11,000 yards (10 km) east of the Canal, strengthening defence of the canal against long range guns, and agreed to provide additional troops. Port Said became headquarters of these new defences, with an advanced headquarters at Kantara. The defences were organised into three sectors: At

4560-481: The increased British Empire presence at the beginning of June, with the first of many air raids on Romani killing eight troopers from the 1st Light Horse Brigade and wounding 22. About 100 horses were also lost. At this time the forward Ottoman air base was at Bir el Mazar, 42 miles (68 km) east of Romani. Early reconnaissances by the ANZAC Mounted Division covered considerable distances from Romani as far as Oghratina, to Bir el Abd and Bir Bayud. The longest raid

4640-453: The length of the railway. They formed a firm base for mobile operations and defence in depth for the huge administrative organisation advancing with the railway, in support of the Anzac Mounted Division and the 52nd (Lowland) Division. The movement of the infantry across Sinai was eased by construction of wire netting roads also used by Egyptian Labour Corps, light vehicles, cars, and ambulances. This reasonably stable surface, which did not sink,

4720-419: The mandates for Mesopotamia and Palestine. The Republic of Turkey came into existence in 1923 after the Turkish War of Independence ended the Ottoman Empire. The European mandates ended with the formation of the Kingdom of Iraq in 1932, the Lebanese Republic in 1943, the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan and Syrian Arab Republic in 1946, and the State of Israel in 1948. Since 1805 , Egypt had been

4800-447: The mid summer mid day heat and thirst. In mid summer desert conditions, the British infantry were unable to move effectively to pursue the retreating columns the next day and alone, the Anzac Mounted Division was unable to attack and capture Von Kressenstein's large force which made an orderly retreat to Katia and eventually back to their base at Bir el Abd. Bir el Abd was abandoned on 12 August 1916 after fierce fighting, during an attack by

4880-426: The military railway, except the Khedivial Railway from Alexandria to Dabaa which was available for emergencies. The Egyptian Labour Corps and the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps had performed invaluable service during the Sinai campaign and would perform even greater service and hardships during the coming Palestine campaign. As the war dragged on and the fighting moved beyond the Egyptian border, many Egyptians felt

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4960-443: The mission of the EEF changed from the defence of the Suez to an invasion of Palestine . In addition to the above, two units from the 3rd (Lahore) Division were added: Shortly afterwards, as a result of the Sinai frontier being crossed, Lord Kitchener ordered additional forces in the form of the East Lancashire Division (Territorial Force) with two Yeomanry regiments to follow, although several elements that were assigned to

5040-417: The new Egyptian Expeditionary Force . Murray believed a British advance into the Sinai to occupy Qatiya/Katia would be more cost effective than the static defences recently established. The War Office agreed to this, but not to his more ambitious plan to advance to the Ottoman border. He believed that the area captured in an advance to El Arish or Rafa could be held with fewer troops than would be needed for

5120-454: The northern sector of the Canal and near Suez in the south. These were followed by the main attacks on 3 and 4 February, on the Suez Canal to east of the Suez to Kantara Railway. Kress von Kressenstein's Ottoman Suez Expeditionary Force advanced from Southern Palestine to arrive on the Canal on 2 February when they succeeded in crossing the Canal near Ismailia on the morning of 3 February 1915. Only two Ottoman companies successfully crossed

5200-435: The objective of protecting the Suez Canal and was originally commanded by Major General Julian Byng , but he was replaced by General J. Maxwell, who took command on 8 September 1914. Initially, the main threat to the Suez came from Germany and throughout the early months several of the force's elements were sent to Europe to take part in the fighting on the Western Front. On 5 November 1914, Britain and France declared war on

5280-400: The offensive during the manoeuvre warfare of the Battle of Megiddo in September. The successful infantry battles at Tulkarm and Tabsor created gaps in the Ottoman front line, allowing the pursuing Desert Mounted Corps to encircle the infantry fighting in the Judean Hills and fight the Battle of Nazareth and Battle of Samakh , capturing Afulah, Beisan , Jenin and Tiberias . In

5360-427: The opening of the Gallipoli Campaign , the Force in Egypt was reduced mainly to a training and reinforcement camp until forces were withdrawn from the Gallipoli Peninsula and returned to Egypt in December 1915. In 1916, the Force in Egypt was merged with the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force to form the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF). General Sir Archibald Murray was given command and additional resources and

5440-508: The port. Fighting in Mecca lasted three weeks. A large Ottoman garrison held out at Taif until late September when they capitulated, while Sherif Hussein's third son Feisal attacked the Ottoman garrison at Medina . The British were keen to extend the Arab Revolt by destabilizing sections of the Ottoman Empire through which the Hejaz Railway ran north – south, from Istanbul to Damascus and on to Amman , Maan , Medina and to Mecca. The railway, built with German assistance to carry pilgrims,

5520-437: The process the EEF destroyed three Ottoman armies during the Battle of Sharon , the Battle of Nablus and the Third Transjordan attack , capturing thousands of prisoners and large quantities of equipment. Damascus and Aleppo were captured during the subsequent pursuit, before the Ottoman Empire agreed to the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918, ending the Sinai and Palestine campaign. The British Mandate of Palestine and

5600-413: The ruins of the old bridge as "a Roman bridge spanning a dry bed, once, perhaps, the main channel of the Jordan, now diverted in its course. The bridge was of Roman construction, with one arch entire, except a longitudinal fissure on the top, and the ruins of two others, one of them at right angles with the main arch, probably for a mill- sluice . The span of the main arch was fifteen feet; the height, from

5680-402: The same. The Arabic name is spelled variously as Damiye, Damieh, Damia, etc., with or without the definitive article (spelled either al-, el-, ad-, ed-). The bridge was used as a crossing between the west and east banks of the Jordan due to good access in both directions over the Far'a/ Tirzah Valley to the west and the Zarqa/Yabbok Valley to the east. In 1849, William F. Lynch described

5760-419: The war effort controlled exclusively by the United Kingdom. The Suez Canal was of vital strategic importance to the British, reducing the sailing time from India, New Zealand and Australia to Europe. As a result Egypt became a major base during the war, particularly during the Gallipoli campaign . To Germany and the Ottoman Empire the canal was the closest and weakest link in British communications. Defence of

5840-427: The war no longer concerned them. At the same time the increasing need for Egyptian personnel turned volunteers into forced labour, although "highly paid," in a system controlled by the local mudirs. From 26 January to 4 February 1915 the Suez Canal was attacked by a large force of the Ottoman Army. Beginning on 26 and 27 January, two smaller flanking columns of the Ottoman Army made secondary attacks near Kantara in

5920-442: Was a constant battle. Incinerators were constructed to burn refuse by stacking used bully beef tins filled with sand. During this period men had to patrol constantly despite poor diet, severe weather conditions, little shelter from the sun and very few rest periods. [In] April 1916 – Everything is being hurried up. The big English flying school near our camp has been ordered to turn out as many pilots as quickly as possible and there

6000-478: Was an element of what became known as the "policy of the open bridges". In January 1968, Jordan built a prefabricated metal bridge to facilitate the trade connections to the West Bank. The bridge was open to both goods and people, but fighting due to the War of Attrition led to the 1968 Battle of Karameh during which the bridge was damaged by Jordanian artillery who tried to prevent Israeli armour from passing. In 1969,

6080-538: Was constructed from two or four rolls of rabbit wire; one inch mesh wire rolled out side by side, wired together with the edges fixed into the sand with long steel or wooden pegs to produce a reasonable track. Force in Egypt The Force in Egypt was a British Army formation established in August 1914 to administer garrisoning armed forces in Egypt at the beginning of the First World War . The force had

6160-542: Was made on 31 May 1916 by the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade to Salmana, covering 100 kilometres (62 mi) in 36 hours. After the middle of May and in particular from mid June to the end of July the heat in the Sinai desert ranged from extreme to fierce. Even worse for the British were the Khamsin dust storms which blow once every 50 days for a few hours or several days, turning

6240-646: Was not only important for Ottoman communications but contained solidly-built stone station buildings which could form defensive positions. With the balance of power in northern Sinai moving in favour of the British, the Sherif was encouraged to seek support for his revolt from as far north as Baalbek, north of Damascus. In London, the War Office, hoping to foment unrest throughout the Ottoman Arab territories, encouraged Murray's plan to advance to El Arish. At

6320-588: Was occupied by Ottoman Army units as they concentrated for the Battle of Romani . In the middle of June the No. 1 Squadron, Australian Flying Corps began active service with "B" Flight at Suez doing reconnaissance work and on 9 July "A" Flight was stationed at Sherika in Upper Egypt with "C" Flight based at Kantara. The battle of Romani took place near the Egyptian town of that name 23 miles (37 km) east of

6400-845: Was part of the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I , taking place between January 1915 and October 1918. The British Empire , the French Third Republic , and the Kingdom of Italy fought alongside the Arab Revolt in opposition to the Ottoman Empire , the German Empire , and the Austro-Hungarian Empire . It started with an Ottoman attempt at raiding the Suez Canal in 1915 and ended with

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