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68-499: Puzrish-Dagan came first to the attention of scholars when clay tablets coming from the site started to appear on the antiquities market in 1909-1910. Based on information from the antiquities traders who sold the tablets, Puzrish-Dagan could be identied with modern Drehem in Iraq. Since then, some 12,000 tablets thought to have come from the site have been published. The objects are scattered across numerous collections, for example those of

136-593: A contributing factor to the downfall, after c.  1180 BC , of the Hittite Empire, where it was already widely spoken. Luwian was also the language spoken in the Neo-Hittite states of Syria, such as Melid and Carchemish , as well as in the central Anatolian kingdom of Tabal that flourished around 900 BC. Luwian has been preserved in two forms, named after the writing systems used to represent them: Cuneiform Luwian and Hieroglyphic Luwian . Mari

204-459: A harbor. The Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures has received permission to start new excavations at the site as part of their renewed work at the nearby site of Nippur and carried out a preliminary survey in 2019. Puzrish-Dagan is located some 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) southeast of Nippur, of which it has sometimes been called a suburb . The site consists of two areas; a northern and

272-572: A kingdom of northern Mesopotamia (modern-day northern Iraq), competing for dominance with its southern Mesopotamian rival Babylonia. From 1365 to 1076, it had been a major imperial power, rivaling Egypt and the Hittite Empire. Beginning with the campaign of Adad-nirari II , it became a vast empire, overthrowing the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt and conquering Egypt, the Middle East, and large swaths of Asia Minor , ancient Iran ,

340-759: A nomadic Semitic people who occupied the country west of the Euphrates from the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. In the earliest Sumerian sources, beginning about 2400 BC, the land of the Amorites ("the Mar.tu land") is associated with the West, including Syria and Canaan , although their ultimate origin may have been Arabia . They ultimately settled in Mesopotamia, ruling Isin , Larsa , and later Babylon. The Hurrians lived in northern Mesopotamia and areas to

408-468: A sophisticated accounting system. In this cultural region, tablets were never fired deliberately as the clay was recycled on an annual basis. However, some of the tablets were "fired" as a result of uncontrolled fires in the buildings where they were stored. The rest, remain tablets of unfired clay and are therefore extremely fragile. For this reason, some institutions are investigating the possibility of firing them now to aid in their preservation. Writing

476-404: A southern mound. The northern mound measures 380 by 240 by 4 metres (1,247 by 787 by 13 ft) for a total area of 10 hectares (25 acres). The southern mound is slightly larger: it measures 560 by 275 metres (1,837 by 902 ft), is 8.5 metres (28 ft) high and occupies an area of 15 hectares (37 acres). Recent remote sensing research suggest the maximum extent was about 80 hectares. Parts of

544-604: A substantial part in the history of the Hittites . Ishuwa was an ancient kingdom in Anatolia . The name is first attested in the second millennium BC, and is also spelled Išuwa. In the classical period, the land was a part of Armenia . Ishuwa was one of the places where agriculture developed very early on in the Neolithic . Urban centres emerged in the upper Euphrates river valley around 3500 BC. The first states followed in

612-521: A term that came to prevail in the 20th century and continues in modern times. As Near East had meant the lands of the Ottoman Empire at roughly its maximum extent, on the fall of that empire, the use of Near East in diplomacy was reduced significantly in favor of the Middle East. Meanwhile, the ancient Near East had become distinct. The Ottoman rule over the Near East ranged from Vienna (to

680-753: A writing medium, especially for writing in cuneiform , throughout the Bronze Age and well into the Iron Age . Cuneiform characters were imprinted on a wet clay tablet with a stylus often made of reed ( reed pen ). Once written upon, many tablets were dried in the sun or air, remaining fragile. Later, these unfired clay tablets could be soaked in water and recycled into new clean tablets. Other tablets, once written, were either deliberately fired in hot kilns , or inadvertently fired when buildings were burnt down by accident or during conflict, making them hard and durable. Collections of these clay documents made up

748-511: Is generally treated as the founding of Puzriš-Dagan. Witnessed by thousands of cuneiform tablets, livestock (cattle, sheep, and goats) of the state was centralized at Drehem and subsequently redistributed to temples, its officials and royal palaces. The temples of nearby Nippur were the main destinations of the livestock. Clay tablet In the Ancient Near East , clay tablets ( Akkadian ṭuppu(m) 𒁾 ) were used as

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816-569: Is known as pictograms . Pictograms are symbols that express a pictorial concept, a logogram , as the meaning of the word. Early writing also began in Ancient Egypt using hieroglyphs . Early hieroglyphs and some of the modern Chinese characters are other examples of pictographs. The Sumerians later shifted their writing to Cuneiform, defined as "Wedge writing" in Latin, which added phonetic symbols, syllabograms . Text on clay tablets took

884-2213: Is noted in western history as the foe of the Greek city states in the Greco-Persian Wars , for freeing the Israelites from their Babylonian captivity , and for instituting Aramaic as the empire's official language. In 116–117 AD, most of the Ancient Near East (excepting several more marginal regions) was briefly re-united under the rule of the Roman Empire under Trajan . ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon

952-592: Is the name given by those historians who see the transition from the late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age as violent, sudden and culturally disruptive, expressed by the collapse of palace economies of the Aegean and Anatolia, which were replaced after a hiatus by the isolated village cultures of the Dark Age period in history of the ancient Middle East. Some have gone so far as to call the catalyst that ended

1020-647: The Biblical Ararat . Two related Israelite kingdoms known as Israel and Judah emerged in the Southern Levant during the Iron Age. The northern Kingdom of Israel , with its most prominent capital at Samaria , was the more prosperous of the two kingdoms and soon developed into a regional power; during the days of the Omride dynasty , it controlled Samaria , Galilee , the upper Jordan Valley ,

1088-585: The Kura-Araxes culture has been connected with this movement, although its date is somewhat too early. Yamhad was an ancient Amorite kingdom. A substantial Hurrian population also settled in the kingdom, and the Hurrian culture influenced the area. The kingdom was powerful during the Middle Bronze Age, c. 1800–1600 BC. Its biggest rival was Qatna further south. Yamhad was finally destroyed by

1156-605: The Royal Ontario Museum , the Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures , Harvard Museum, and the Iraq Museum . Stephen Herbert Langdon briefly excavated there in 1924. The site was surveyed by Robert McCormick Adams as part of his important archaeological work in the region. Iraqi archaeologists excavated the site in 2007 under the direction of Ali Ubeid Shalkam. The Iraqi-Italian QADIS-project surveyed

1224-658: The Sharon and large parts of the Transjordan . It was destroyed around 720 BC, when it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire . The southern Kingdom of Judah , with its capital at Jerusalem , survived longer. In the 7th century BC, the kingdom's population increased greatly, prospering under Assyrian vassalage. After the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 605 BC, the ensuing competition between

1292-699: The Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt and the Neo-Babylonian Empire for control of the Levant resulted with the rapid decline of the kingdom. In the early-6th century BC, Judah was weakened by a series of Babylonian invasions , and in 587–586 BC, Jerusalem was besieged and destroyed by the second Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar II , who subsequently exiled the Judeans to Babylon . The term Neo-Babylonian Empire refers to Babylonia under

1360-532: The 1st millennium BCE. Tablets on Babylonian astronomical records (such as Enuma Anu Enlil and MUL.APIN ) date back to around 1800 BCE. Tablets discussing astronomical records continue through around 75 CE. Late Babylonian tablets at the British Museum refer to appearances of Halley's Comet in 164 BCE and 87 BCE. Ancient Near East Mesopotamia Egypt Iran Anatolia The Levant Arabia Cosmology The ancient Near East

1428-620: The 7th millennium BC, although it is likely that the area was occupied even earlier. The oldest layers at 'Oueili mark the beginning of the Ubaid period , which was followed by the Uruk period (4th millennium BC) and the Early Dynastic periods (3rd millennium BC). The Akkadian Empire , founded by Sargon the Great , lasted from the 24th to the 21st century BC, and was regarded by many as

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1496-732: The Bronze Age a "catastrophe". The Bronze Age collapse may be seen in the context of a technological history that saw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of iron-working technology in the region, beginning with precocious iron-working in what is now Romania in the 13th and 12th centuries. The cultural collapse of the Mycenaean kingdoms , the Hittite Empire in Anatolia and Syria, and the Egyptian Empire in Syria and Palestine ,

1564-785: The Caucasus and east Mediterranean . The Neo-Assyrian Empire succeeded the Middle Assyrian period (14th to 10th century BC). Some scholars, such as Richard Nelson Frye , regard the Neo-Assyrian Empire to be the first real empire in human history. During this period, Aramaic was also made an official language of the empire, alongside the Akkadian language . The states of the Neo-Hittite kingdoms were Luwian , Aramaic and Phoenician -speaking political entities of Iron Age northern Syria and southern Anatolia that arose following

1632-579: The Euphrates river and destroyed the cities there. This corresponds well with burnt destruction layers discovered by archaeologists at town sites in Ishuwa of roughly the same date. After the end of the Hittite empire in the early 12th century BC a new state emerged in Ishuwa. The city of Malatya became the centre of one of the so-called Neo-Hittite kingdom. The movement of nomadic people may have weakened

1700-440: The Hittites in the 16th century BC. The Aramaeans were a Semitic ( West Semitic language group), semi-nomadic and pastoralist people who had lived in upper Mesopotamia and Syria . Aramaeans have never had a unified empire; they were divided into independent kingdoms all across the Near East. Yet to these Aramaeans befell the privilege of imposing their language and culture upon the entire Near East and beyond, fostered in part by

1768-525: The Iranian plateau. In archaeological terms, this corresponds to the late Banesh period. This civilization is recognized as the oldest in Iran and was largely contemporary with its neighbour, Sumer. The Proto-Elamite script is an early Bronze Age writing system briefly in use for the ancient Elamite language (which was a language isolate ) before the introduction of Elamite cuneiform . The Amorites were

1836-545: The Near East and far beyond, and the second great Iranian empire (after the Median Empire). At the height of its power, encompassing approximately 7,500,000 km (2,900,000 sq mi), the Achaemenid Empire was territorially the largest empire of classical antiquity, and the first world empire. It spanned three continents ( Europe , Asia, and Africa), including apart from its core in modern-day Iran,

1904-465: The Near East. The result is a descriptive abstraction that provides a useful handle on Near East periods of time with relatively stable characteristics. The Uruk period ( c.  4000 to 3100 BC) existed from the protohistoric Chalcolithic to the early Bronze Age period in the history of Mesopotamia , following the Ubaid period . Named after the Sumerian city of Uruk , this period saw

1972-668: The Ur III period. In the absence of excavations these texts from provide the most information on the nature of the settlement at Drehem. Puzrish-Dagan was founded by king Shulgi as an important administrative center in the bala tax system of the Ur III period. Year name 39 of Shulgi was "The year Šulgi, king of Ur, king of the four quarters, built é-Puzriš-Dagan, a residence {palace? temple?} of Šulgi", though Drehem texts are known to start as far back as Shulgi year 26. Texts between S26 and S39 are referred to as "Early Drehem Series". The following two year names also marked this same event, which

2040-458: The centre of West Asia , having been focused on the lands between Greece and Egypt in the west and Iran in the east. It therefore largely corresponds with the modern-day geopolitical concept of the Middle East . The history of the ancient Near East begins with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC, though the date that it ends is a subject of debate among scholars; the term covers

2108-407: The clay tablet. Some of the recipes were stew, which was made with goat, garlic, onions and sour milk. By the end of the 3rd Millennium BCE, (2200–2000 BCE), even the "short story" was first attempted, as independent scribes entered into the philosophical arena, with stories like: " Debate between bird and fish ", and other topics, ( List of Sumerian debates ). Communication grew faster as now there

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2176-428: The clay; the clay tablets themselves came in a variety of colors such as bone white, chocolate, and charcoal. Pictographs then began to appear on clay tablets around 4000 BCE, and after the later development of Sumerian cuneiform writing, a more sophisticated partial syllabic script evolved that by around 2500 BCE was capable of recording the vernacular, the everyday speech of the common people. Sumerians used what

2244-558: The collapse of the Hittite Empire around 1180 BC and lasted until roughly 700 BC. The term "Neo-Hittite" is sometimes reserved specifically for the Luwian-speaking principalities like Melid ( Malatya ) and Karkamish ( Carchemish ), although in a wider sense the broader cultural term "Syro-Hittite" is now applied to all the entities that arose in south-central Anatolia following the Hittite collapse – such as Tabal and Quwê – as well as those of northern and coastal Syria. Urartu

2312-806: The east between these two terms was current in diplomacy in the late 19th century, with the Hamidian Massacres of the Armenians and Assyrians by the Ottoman Empire in 1894–1896 and the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895. The two theatres were described by the statesmen and advisors of the British Empire as "the Near East" and "the Far East". Shortly after, they were to share the stage with '' Middle East '',

2380-577: The emergence of urban life in Mesopotamia. It was followed by the Sumerian civilization in southern Mesopotamia . The late Uruk period (3400 to 3200 BC) saw the gradual emergence of cuneiform script and corresponds to the early Bronze Age. Sumer hosted many early advances in human history , such as schools ( c.  3000 BC ), making the area a cradle of civilization . The oldest excavated archaeological site in Sumer, Tell el-'Oueili , dates to

2448-418: The first legal codes , all of which were monumental advances that laid the foundations of astronomy and mathematics , and the invention of the wheel . During this period, the region's previously stateless societies largely transitioned to building states , many of which gradually came to annex the territories of their neighbouring civilizations . This process continued until the entire ancient Near East

2516-486: The first archives. They were at the root of the first libraries . Tens of thousands of written tablets, including many fragments, have been found in the Middle East. Surviving tablet-based documents from the Minoan / Mycenaean civilizations, are mainly those which were used for accounting. Tablets serving as labels with the impression of the side of a wicker basket on the back, and tablets showing yearly summaries, suggest

2584-407: The forms of myths, fables, essays, hymns, proverbs, epic poetry, business records, laws, plants, and animals. What these clay tablets allowed was for individuals to record who and what was significant. An example of these great stories was Epic of Gilgamesh . This story would tell of the great flood that destroyed Sumer. Remedies and recipes that would have been unknown were then possible because of

2652-429: The height of its power, during the 14th century BC, encompassing what is today southeastern Turkey, northern Syria and northern Iraq (roughly corresponding to Kurdistan ), centred on the capital Washukanni whose precise location has not yet been determined by archaeologists. The Mitanni language showed Indo-Aryan influences, especially in the names of gods. The spread to Syria of a distinct pottery type associated with

2720-739: The highlands of southeastern Anatolia, near the Gulf of İskenderun in modern-day Turkey , encircling the Taurus Mountains and the Ceyhan river. The centre of the kingdom was the city of Kummanni , situated in the highlands. In a later era, the same region was known as Cilicia . Luwian is an extinct language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family . Luwian speakers gradually spread through Anatolia and became

2788-553: The immediate east and west, beginning approximately 2500 BC. They probably originated in the Caucasus and entered from the north, but this is not certain. Their known homeland was centred on Subartu , the Khabur River valley, and later they established themselves as rulers of small kingdoms throughout northern Mesopotamia and Syria. The largest and most influential Hurrian nation was the kingdom of Mitanni . The Hurrians played

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2856-523: The kingdom of Malatya before the final Assyrian invasion. The decline of the settlements and culture in Ishuwa from the 7th century BC until the Roman period was probably caused by this movement of people. The Armenians later settled in the area since they were natives of the Armenian plateau and related to the earlier inhabitants of Ishuwa. Kizzuwatna was a kingdom of the second millennium BC, situated in

2924-451: The late 19th dynasty , and especially during Year 8 of Ramesses III of the 20th Dynasty . The Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah explicitly refers to them by the term "the foreign-countries (or 'peoples') of the sea" in his Great Karnak Inscription . Although some scholars believe that they "invaded" Cyprus , Hatti and the Levant, this hypothesis is disputed. The Bronze Age collapse

2992-673: The mass relocations enacted by successive empires, including the Assyrians and Babylonians . Scholars even have used the term 'Aramaization' for the Assyro-Babylonian peoples' languages and cultures, that have become Aramaic-speaking. The Sea peoples is the term used for a confederacy of seafaring raiders of the second millennium BC who sailed into the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, caused political unrest, and attempted to enter or control Egyptian territory during

3060-610: The mid-10th century BC, and the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire . During the Early Iron Age, from 911 BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire arose, vying with Babylonia and other lesser powers for dominance of the region, though not until the reforms of Tiglath-Pileser III in the 8th century BC, did it become a powerful and vast empire. In the Middle Assyrian period of the Late Bronze Age, Ancient Assyria had been

3128-437: The north) to the tip of the Arabian Peninsula (to the south), from Egypt (in the west) to the borders of Iraq (in the east). The 19th-century archaeologists added Iran to their definition, which was never under the Ottomans, but they excluded all of Europe and, generally, Egypt, which had parts in the empire. Ancient Near East periodization is the attempt to categorize or divide time into discrete named blocks, or eras, of

3196-435: The region's developments in the Bronze Age and the Iron Age , and is variously considered to end with either the establishment of the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BC, the establishment of the Macedonian Empire in the 4th century BC, or the beginning of the early Muslim conquests in the 7th century AD. It was within the ancient Near East that humans first practiced intensive year-round agriculture , which led to

3264-404: The rise of the earliest dense urban settlements and the development of many now-familiar institutions of civilization, such as social stratification , centralized government and empires , and organized religion (see: ancient Near Eastern religions ) and organized warfare . It also saw the creation of the first writing system , the first alphabet (i.e., abjad ), the first currency , and

3332-402: The rule of the 11th ("Chaldean") dynasty, from the revolt of Nabopolassar in 623 BC until the invasion of Cyrus the Great in 539 BC (Although the last ruler of Babylonia ( Nabonidus ) was in fact from the Assyrian city of Harran and not Chaldean), notably including the reign of Nebuchadrezzar II. Through the centuries of Assyrian domination, Babylonia enjoyed a prominent status, and revolted at

3400-410: The scission of long-distance trade contacts and sudden eclipse of literacy occurred between 1206 and 1150 BC. In the first phase of this period, almost every city between Troy and Gaza was violently destroyed, and often left unoccupied thereafter (for example, Hattusas , Mycenae , Ugarit ). The gradual end of the Dark Age that ensued saw the rise of settled Neo-Hittite and Aramaean kingdoms of

3468-412: The site according to a 1967 publication of the Iraqi Directorate General of antiquities. The QADIS-survey found sherds dating to the Middle Uruk period and confirmed that the Ur III period was probably the most important settlement level at Drehem. Evidence for the Isin-Larsa as well as the Parthian and/or Sasanian periods has also been found. The thousands of texts coming from the site all date to

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3536-418: The site are now obscured by modern agricultural fields and several irrigation canals cut through it. The mound has been described as a "beehive" due to the illegal looting taking place since the early 1900s. Based on the site morphology, the southern mound possibly contains a ziggurat . Both mounds probably contain large buildings over 100 metres (330 ft) in length. Traces of the walls are still visible on

3604-424: The site in 2016. From 2016 to 2019 the University of Bologna and the Iraqi State Board of Antiquities and Heritage conducted a program of coordinated remote sensing and surface surveys in the Qadisiyah province including at Drehem. It determined that the site had an extent of 60 hectares. It determined that the city was surrounded by canals, was laid out as an urban grid, had a number of administrative building, and had

3672-405: The slightest indication that it did not. However, the Assyrians always managed to restore Babylonian loyalty, whether through the granting of increased privileges, or militarily. That finally changed in 627 BC with the death of the last strong Assyrian ruler, Ashurbanipal , and Babylonia rebelled under Nabopolassar the Chaldean a few years later. In alliance with the Medes and Scythians , Nineveh

3740-405: The surface and the regularity of these traces suggests that the buildings were planned and built within a short period of time. The QADIS-survey has documented possible traces of a city wall, a large temple complex next to the ziggurat, ancient canals that ran alongside and through the settlement, as well as a harbor. Traces of the Early Dynastic , Akkadian and Ur III periods have been found at

3808-403: The tablet were carbon dated ) to before 4000 BCE, and possibly dating from as long ago as 5500 BCE, but their interpretation remains controversial because the tablets were fired in a furnace and the properties of the carbon changed accordingly. Fragments of tablets containing the Epic of Gilgamesh dating to 1800–1600 BCE have been discovered. A full version has been found on tablets dated to

3876-482: The territories of modern Iraq, the Caucasus (Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Dagestan , Abkhazia), Asia Minor (Turkey), Thrace (parts of Eastern Bulgaria ), Macedonia (roughly corresponding to present-day Macedonia in Northern Greece), many of the Black Sea coastal regions, northern Saudi Arabia , Jordan , Israel , Lebanon , Syria, Afghanistan , Central Asia , parts of Pakistan , and all significant population centers of ancient Egypt as far west as Libya . It

3944-432: The third millennium BC. The name Ishuwa is not known until the literate period of the second millennium BC. Few literate sources from within Ishuwa have been discovered and the primary source material comes from Hittite texts. To the west of Ishuwa lay the kingdom of the Hittites , and this nation was an untrustworthy neighbour. The Hittite king Hattusili I ( c.  1600 BC ) is reported to have marched his army across

4012-539: The trade of sheep, grain, and bread loaves, where transactions were recorded with clay tokens. These, initially very small clay tokens, were continually used all the way from the pre-historic Mesopotamia period, 9000 BCE, to the start of the historic period around 3000 BCE, when the use of writing for recording was widely adopted. The clay tablet was thus being used by scribes to record events happening during their time. Tools that these scribes used were styluses with sharp triangular tips, making it easy to leave markings on

4080-424: The world's first empire. The Akkadians eventually fragmented into Assyria and Babylonia. Ancient Elam lay to the east of Sumer and Akkad , in the far west and southwest of modern-day Iran , stretching from the lowlands of Khuzestan and Ilam Province . In the Old Elamite period, c.  3200 BC , it consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau , centered on Anshan , and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it

4148-453: Was a way to get messages across just like mail. Important and private clay tablets were coated with an extra layer of clay, that no one else would read it. This means of communicating was used for over 3000 years in fifteen different languages. Sumerians, Babylonians and Eblaites all had their own clay tablet libraries. The Tărtăria tablets , the Danubian civilization , may be still older, having been dated by indirect method (bones found near

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4216-444: Was an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city, located 11 kilometres north-west of the modern town of Abu Kamal on the western bank of Euphrates river, some 120 km southeast of Deir ez-Zor , Syria. It is thought to have been inhabited since the 5th millennium BC, although it flourished from 2900 BC until 1759 BC, when it was sacked by Hammurabi . Mitanni was a Hurrian kingdom in northern Mesopotamia from c.  1600 BC , at

4284-419: Was an ancient kingdom of Armenia and North Mesopotamia which existed from c.  860 BC , emerging from the Late Bronze Age until 585 BC. The Kingdom of Urartu was located in the mountainous plateau between Asia Minor , the Iranian plateau , Mesopotamia, and the Caucasus Mountains , later known as the Armenian Highland , and it centered on Lake Van (present-day eastern Turkey). The name corresponds to

4352-414: Was centered on Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Elam was absorbed into the Assyrian Empire in the 9th to 7th centuries BC; however, the civilization endured up until 539 BC when it was finally overrun by the Iranian Persians . The Proto-Elamite civilization existed from c.   3200 BC to 2700 BC , when Susa, the later capital of the Elamites, began to receive influence from the cultures of

4420-408: Was enveloped by militaristic empires that had emerged from their own lands to conquer and absorb a variety of cultures under the rule of a top-level government. The phrase "ancient Near East" denotes the 19th-century distinction between the Near and Far East as global regions of interest to the British Empire . The distinction began during the Crimean War . The last major exclusive partition of

4488-427: Was home to many cradles of civilization , spanning Mesopotamia , Egypt , Iran (or Persia ), Anatolia and the Armenian highlands , the Levant , and the Arabian Peninsula . As such, the fields of ancient Near East studies and Near Eastern archaeology are one of the most prominent with regard to research in the realm of ancient history . Historically, the Near East denoted an area roughly encompassing

4556-522: Was not as we see it today. In Mesopotamia, writing began as simple counting marks, sometimes alongside a non-arbitrary sign, in the form of a simple image, pressed into clay tokens or less commonly cut into wood, stone or pots. In that way, the exact number of goods involved in a transaction could be recorded. This convention began when people developed agriculture and settled into permanent communities that were centered on increasingly large and organized trading marketplaces. These marketplaces were purposed for

4624-423: Was sacked in 612 and Harran in 608 BC, and the seat of empire was again transferred to Babylonia. Subsequently, the Medes controlled much of the ancient Near East from their base in Ecbatana (modern-day Hamadan , Iran), most notably most of what is now Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and the South Caucasus . Following the fall of the Medes, the Achaemenid Empire was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over most of

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