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98-476: Drozd uses 24.5 GHz Doppler radar to detect incoming rounds travelling between 70 and 700  m/s (to avoid engaging small arms or other faster projectiles). Its computer determines when to fire a 107 mm projectile. When the incoming round is at 7 m range, the Drozd fragmentation warhead detonates, spreading 3-gram slugs to destroy the incoming round. The Drozd system was relatively complex, requiring

196-435: A magnetic-dipole –type that dies out with distance from the current. In a similar manner, moving charges pushed apart in a conductor by a changing electrical potential (such as in an antenna) produce an electric-dipole –type electrical field, but this also declines with distance. These fields make up the near field. Neither of these behaviours is responsible for EM radiation. Instead, they only efficiently transfer energy to

294-422: A microwave oven . These interactions produce either electric currents or heat, or both. Like radio and microwave, infrared (IR) also is reflected by metals (and also most EMR, well into the ultraviolet range). However, unlike lower-frequency radio and microwave radiation, Infrared EMR commonly interacts with dipoles present in single molecules, which change as atoms vibrate at the ends of a single chemical bond. It

392-461: A transverse wave , where the electric field E and the magnetic field B are both perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. The electric and magnetic parts of the field in an electromagnetic wave stand in a fixed ratio of strengths to satisfy the two Maxwell equations that specify how one is produced from the other. In dissipation-less (lossless) media, these E and B fields are also in phase, with both reaching maxima and minima at

490-611: A wave form of the electric and magnetic equations , thus uncovering the wave-like nature of electric and magnetic fields and their symmetry . Because the speed of EM waves predicted by the wave equation coincided with the measured speed of light , Maxwell concluded that light itself is an EM wave. Maxwell's equations were confirmed by Heinrich Hertz through experiments with radio waves. Maxwell's equations established that some charges and currents ( sources ) produce local electromagnetic fields near them that do not radiate. Currents directly produce magnetic fields, but such fields of

588-407: A baseball pitcher throwing one ball every second to a catcher (a frequency of 1 ball per second). Assuming the balls travel at a constant velocity and the pitcher is stationary, the catcher catches one ball every second. However, if the pitcher is jogging towards the catcher, the catcher catches balls more frequently because the balls are less spaced out (the frequency increases). The inverse is true if

686-581: A bulk collection of charges which are spread out over large numbers of affected atoms. In electrical conductors , such induced bulk movement of charges ( electric currents ) results in absorption of the EMR, or else separations of charges that cause generation of new EMR (effective reflection of the EMR). An example is absorption or emission of radio waves by antennas, or absorption of microwaves by water or other molecules with an electric dipole moment, as for example inside

784-411: A certain minimum frequency, which depended on the particular metal, no current would flow regardless of the intensity. These observations appeared to contradict the wave theory, and for years physicists tried in vain to find an explanation. In 1905, Einstein explained this puzzle by resurrecting the particle theory of light to explain the observed effect. Because of the preponderance of evidence in favor of

882-605: A component wave is said to be monochromatic . A monochromatic electromagnetic wave can be characterized by its frequency or wavelength, its peak amplitude, its phase relative to some reference phase, its direction of propagation, and its polarization. Interference is the superposition of two or more waves resulting in a new wave pattern. If the fields have components in the same direction, they constructively interfere, while opposite directions cause destructive interference. Additionally, multiple polarization signals can be combined (i.e. interfered) to form new states of polarization, which

980-499: A fluorescence on a nearby plate of coated glass. In one month, he discovered X-rays' main properties. The last portion of the EM spectrum to be discovered was associated with radioactivity . Henri Becquerel found that uranium salts caused fogging of an unexposed photographic plate through a covering paper in a manner similar to X-rays, and Marie Curie discovered that only certain elements gave off these rays of energy, soon discovering

1078-576: A higher energy (and hence shorter wavelength) than gamma rays and vice versa. The origin of the ray differentiates them, gamma rays tend to be natural phenomena originating from the unstable nucleus of an atom and X-rays are electrically generated (and hence man-made) unless they are as a result of bremsstrahlung X-radiation caused by the interaction of fast moving particles (such as beta particles) colliding with certain materials, usually of higher atomic numbers. EM radiation (the designation 'radiation' excludes static electric and magnetic and near fields )

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1176-487: A large range of velocity detection, but the accuracy in velocity is in the tens of knots . Antenna designs for the CW and FM-CW started out as separate transmit and receive antennas before the advent of affordable microwave designs. In the late 1960s, traffic radars began being produced which used a single antenna. This was made possible by the use of circular polarization and a multi-port waveguide section operating at X band. By

1274-528: A linear medium such as a vacuum. However, in nonlinear media, such as some crystals , interactions can occur between light and static electric and magnetic fields—these interactions include the Faraday effect and the Kerr effect . In refraction , a wave crossing from one medium to another of different density alters its speed and direction upon entering the new medium. The ratio of the refractive indices of

1372-405: A low altitude target, filtering on the radial speed is a very effective way to eliminate the ground clutter that always has a null speed. Low-flying military plane with countermeasure alert for hostile radar track acquisition can turn perpendicular to the hostile radar to nullify its Doppler frequency, which usually breaks the lock and drives the radar off by hiding against the ground return which

1470-539: A lower energy level, it emits a photon of light at a frequency corresponding to the energy difference. Since the energy levels of electrons in atoms are discrete, each element and each molecule emits and absorbs its own characteristic frequencies. Immediate photon emission is called fluorescence , a type of photoluminescence . An example is visible light emitted from fluorescent paints, in response to ultraviolet ( blacklight ). Many other fluorescent emissions are known in spectral bands other than visible light. Delayed emission

1568-481: A medium to high PRF (on the order of 3 to 30 kHz), which allows for the detection of either high-speed targets or high-resolution velocity measurements. Normally it is one or the other; a radar designed for detecting targets from zero to Mach 2 does not have a high resolution in speed, while a radar designed for high-resolution velocity measurements does not have a wide range of speeds. Weather radars are high-resolution velocity radars, while air defense radars have

1666-402: A number of aircraft of the era, and were combined with the main search radars of fighter designs by the 1960s. Doppler navigation was in common commercial aviation use in the 1960s until it was largely superseded by inertial navigation systems . The equipment consisted of a transmitter/receiver unit, a processing unit and a gyro stabilised antenna platform. The antenna generated four beams and

1764-417: A particular star. Spectroscopy is also used in the determination of the distance of a star, using the red shift . When any wire (or other conducting object such as an antenna ) conducts alternating current , electromagnetic radiation is propagated at the same frequency as the current. As a wave, light is characterized by a velocity (the speed of light ), wavelength , and frequency . As particles, light

1862-521: A radar array and two launch tubes on each side of the tank turret, and a large electronics package on the turret rear. One of Drozd's shortcomings was that it was only able to protect a 60-degree arc around the forward part of the turret. Each unit costs around $ 30,000, was 80 percent successful against incoming RPGs in Afghanistan, but caused too much collateral damage to surrounding troops that were dismounted from their armored vehicles. The project

1960-417: A receiver very close to the source, such as inside a transformer . The near field has strong effects its source, with any energy withdrawn by a receiver causing increased load (decreased electrical reactance ) on the source. The near field does not propagate freely into space, carrying energy away without a distance limit, but rather oscillates, returning its energy to the transmitter if it is not absorbed by

2058-467: A receiver. By contrast, the far field is composed of radiation that is free of the transmitter, in the sense that the transmitter requires the same power to send changes in the field out regardless of whether anything absorbs the signal, e.g. a radio station does not need to increase its power when more receivers use the signal. This far part of the electromagnetic field is electromagnetic radiation. The far fields propagate (radiate) without allowing

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2156-697: A system was the Green Satin radar used in the English Electric Canberra . This system sent a pulsed signal at a very low repetition rate so it could use a single antenna to transmit and receive. An oscillator held the reference frequency for comparison to the received signal. In practice, the initial "fix" was taken using a radio navigation system, normally Gee , and the Green Satin then provided accurate long-distance navigation beyond Gee's 350-mile range. Similar systems were used in

2254-445: A third type of radiation, which in 1903 Rutherford named gamma rays . In 1910 British physicist William Henry Bragg demonstrated that gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation, not particles, and in 1914 Rutherford and Edward Andrade measured their wavelengths, finding that they were similar to X-rays but with shorter wavelengths and higher frequency, although a 'cross-over' between X and gamma rays makes it possible to have X-rays with

2352-596: A velocity output as the received signal from the target is compared in frequency with the original signal. Early Doppler radars included CW, but these quickly led to the development of frequency modulated continuous wave ( FMCW ) radar, which sweeps the transmitter frequency to encode and determine range. With the advent of digital techniques, Pulse-Doppler radars (PD) became light enough for aircraft use, and Doppler processors for coherent pulse radars became more common. That provides Look-down/shoot-down capability. The advantage of combining Doppler processing with pulse radars

2450-431: A very large (ideally infinite) distance from the source. Both types of waves can have a waveform which is an arbitrary time function (so long as it is sufficiently differentiable to conform to the wave equation). As with any time function, this can be decomposed by means of Fourier analysis into its frequency spectrum , or individual sinusoidal components, each of which contains a single frequency, amplitude and phase. Such

2548-467: A wave is its rate of oscillation and is measured in hertz , the SI unit of frequency, where one hertz is equal to one oscillation per second. Light usually has multiple frequencies that sum to form the resultant wave. Different frequencies undergo different angles of refraction, a phenomenon known as dispersion . A monochromatic wave (a wave of a single frequency) consists of successive troughs and crests, and

2646-522: Is quantized and proportional to frequency according to Planck's equation E = hf , where E is the energy per photon, f is the frequency of the photon, and h is the Planck constant . Thus, higher frequency photons have more energy. For example, a 10  Hz gamma ray photon has 10 times the energy of a 10  Hz extremely low frequency radio wave photon. The effects of EMR upon chemical compounds and biological organisms depend both upon

2744-472: Is a more subtle affair. Some experiments display both the wave and particle natures of electromagnetic waves, such as the self-interference of a single photon . When a single photon is sent through an interferometer , it passes through both paths, interfering with itself, as waves do, yet is detected by a photomultiplier or other sensitive detector only once. A quantum theory of the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter such as electrons

2842-698: Is a specialized radar that uses the Doppler effect to produce velocity data about objects at a distance. It does this by bouncing a microwave signal off a desired target and analyzing how the object's motion has altered the frequency of the returned signal. This variation gives direct and highly accurate measurements of the radial component of a target's velocity relative to the radar. The term applies to radar systems in many domains like aviation, police radar detectors , navigation , meteorology , etc. The Doppler effect (or Doppler shift), named after Austrian physicist Christian Doppler who proposed it in 1842,

2940-404: Is a stream of photons . Each has an energy related to the frequency of the wave given by Planck's relation E = hf , where E is the energy of the photon, h is the Planck constant , 6.626 × 10 J·s, and f is the frequency of the wave. In a medium (other than vacuum), velocity factor or refractive index are considered, depending on frequency and application. Both of these are ratios of

3038-523: Is associated with those EM waves that are free to propagate themselves ("radiate") without the continuing influence of the moving charges that produced them, because they have achieved sufficient distance from those charges. Thus, EMR is sometimes referred to as the far field , while the near field refers to EM fields near the charges and current that directly produced them, specifically electromagnetic induction and electrostatic induction phenomena. In quantum mechanics , an alternate way of viewing EMR

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3136-422: Is called phosphorescence . The modern theory that explains the nature of light includes the notion of wave–particle duality. Together, wave and particle effects fully explain the emission and absorption spectra of EM radiation. The matter-composition of the medium through which the light travels determines the nature of the absorption and emission spectrum. These bands correspond to the allowed energy levels in

3234-563: Is classified by wavelength into radio , microwave , infrared , visible , ultraviolet , X-rays and gamma rays . Arbitrary electromagnetic waves can be expressed by Fourier analysis in terms of sinusoidal waves ( monochromatic radiation ), which in turn can each be classified into these regions of the EMR spectrum. For certain classes of EM waves, the waveform is most usefully treated as random , and then spectral analysis must be done by slightly different mathematical techniques appropriate to random or stochastic processes . In such cases,

3332-729: Is described by the theory of quantum electrodynamics . Electromagnetic waves can be polarized , reflected, refracted, or diffracted , and can interfere with each other. In homogeneous, isotropic media, electromagnetic radiation is a transverse wave , meaning that its oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer and travel. It comes from the following equations : ∇ ⋅ E = 0 ∇ ⋅ B = 0 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} &=0\\\nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} &=0\end{aligned}}} These equations predicate that any electromagnetic wave must be

3430-479: Is inversely proportional to wavelength, the wavelength of the waves is also affected. Thus, the relative difference in velocity between a source and an observer is what gives rise to the Doppler effect. The formula for radar Doppler shift is the same as that for reflection of light by a moving mirror. There is no need to invoke Albert Einstein 's theory of special relativity , because all observations are made in

3528-453: Is known as parallel polarization state generation . The energy in electromagnetic waves is sometimes called radiant energy . An anomaly arose in the late 19th century involving a contradiction between the wave theory of light and measurements of the electromagnetic spectra that were being emitted by thermal radiators known as black bodies . Physicists struggled with this problem unsuccessfully for many years, and it later became known as

3626-470: Is much larger. Doppler radar tends to be lightweight because it eliminates heavy pulse hardware. The associated filtering removes stationary reflections while integrating signals over a longer time span, which improves range performance while reducing power. The military applied these advantages during the 1940s. Continuous-broadcast, or FM, radar was developed during World War II for United States Navy aircraft, to support night combat operation. Most used

3724-415: Is required. That extra weight imposed unacceptable kinematic performance limitations that restricted aircraft use to night operation, heavy weather, and heavy jamming environments until the 1970s. Digital fast Fourier transform (FFT) filtering became practical when modern microprocessors became available during the 1970s. This was immediately connected to coherent pulsed radars, where velocity information

3822-477: Is that it consists of photons , uncharged elementary particles with zero rest mass which are the quanta of the electromagnetic field , responsible for all electromagnetic interactions. Quantum electrodynamics is the theory of how EMR interacts with matter on an atomic level. Quantum effects provide additional sources of EMR, such as the transition of electrons to lower energy levels in an atom and black-body radiation . The energy of an individual photon

3920-486: Is the emission spectrum of nebulae . Rapidly moving electrons are most sharply accelerated when they encounter a region of force, so they are responsible for producing much of the highest frequency electromagnetic radiation observed in nature. These phenomena can aid various chemical determinations for the composition of gases lit from behind (absorption spectra) and for glowing gases (emission spectra). Spectroscopy (for example) determines what chemical elements comprise

4018-407: Is the difference between the observed frequency and the emitted frequency of a wave for an observer moving relative to the source of the waves. It is commonly heard when a vehicle sounding a siren approaches, passes and recedes from an observer. The received frequency is higher (compared to the emitted frequency) during the approach, it is identical at the instant of passing by, and it is lower during

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4116-752: Is thus: Since for most practical applications of radar, v ≪ c {\displaystyle v\ll c} , so ( c − v ) → c {\displaystyle \left(c-v\right)\rightarrow c} . We can then write: There are four ways of producing the Doppler effect. Radars may be: Doppler allows the use of narrow band receiver filters that reduce or eliminate signals from slow moving and stationary objects. This effectively eliminates false signals produced by trees, clouds, insects, birds, wind, and other environmental influences but various inexpensive hand held Doppler radar devices not using this may produce erroneous measurements. CW Doppler radar only provides

4214-432: Is to provide accurate velocity information. This velocity is called range-rate . It describes the rate that a target moves toward or away from the radar. A target with no range-rate reflects a frequency near the transmitter frequency and cannot be detected. The classic zero doppler target is one which is on a heading that is tangential to the radar antenna beam. Basically, any target that is heading 90 degrees in relation to

4312-489: The NEXRAD network being deployed at the end of the 1980s. Doppler radars were used as a navigation aid for aircraft and spacecraft. By directly measuring the movement of the ground with the radar, and then comparing this to the airspeed returned from the aircraft instruments, the wind speed could be accurately determined for the first time. This value was then used for highly accurate dead reckoning . One early example of such

4410-648: The Planck energy or exceeding it (far too high to have ever been observed) will require new physical theories to describe. When radio waves impinge upon a conductor , they couple to the conductor, travel along it and induce an electric current on the conductor surface by moving the electrons of the conducting material in correlated bunches of charge. Electromagnetic radiation phenomena with wavelengths ranging from as long as one meter to as short as one millimeter are called microwaves; with frequencies between 300 MHz (0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz. At radio and microwave frequencies, EMR interacts with matter largely as

4508-473: The Planck–Einstein equation . In quantum theory (see first quantization ) the energy of the photons is thus directly proportional to the frequency of the EMR wave. Likewise, the momentum p of a photon is also proportional to its frequency and inversely proportional to its wavelength: The source of Einstein's proposal that light was composed of particles (or could act as particles in some circumstances)

4606-514: The UHF spectrum and had a transmit Yagi antenna on the port wing and a receiver Yagi antenna on the starboard wing. This enabled bombers to fly an optimum speed when approaching ship targets, and let escort fighter aircraft train guns on enemy aircraft during night operation. These strategies were adapted to semi-active radar homing . In 1951, Carl A. Wiley invented synthetic-aperture radar , which, though distinct from mainstream Doppler radar,

4704-523: The electromagnetic (EM) field , which propagate through space and carry momentum and electromagnetic radiant energy . Classically , electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves , which are synchronized oscillations of electric and magnetic fields . In a vacuum , electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light , commonly denoted c . There, depending on the frequency of oscillation, different wavelengths of electromagnetic spectrum are produced. In homogeneous, isotropic media,

4802-418: The ultraviolet catastrophe . In 1900, Max Planck developed a new theory of black-body radiation that explained the observed spectrum. Planck's theory was based on the idea that black bodies emit light (and other electromagnetic radiation) only as discrete bundles or packets of energy. These packets were called quanta . In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed that light quanta be regarded as real particles. Later

4900-509: The Doppler function for weather radar has a long history in many countries. In June 1958, American researchers David Holmes and Robert Smith were able to detect the rotation of a tornado using the mobile continuous-wave radar (photo to the right). Norman's laboratory, which later became the National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL), modified this radar to make it a pulsed Doppler radar allowing more easily to know

4998-454: The Doppler offset being measured is caused by the relative motion between the ground station and the fast-moving satellite. The combination of Doppler offset and reception time can be used to generate a locus of locations that would have the measured offset at that intersects the Earth's surface at that moment: by combining this with other loci from measurements at other times, the true location of

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5096-489: The PRF of the radar. This is not a problem for weather radars. Velocity information for aircraft cannot be extracted directly from low-PRF radar because sampling restricts measurements to about 75 miles per hour. Specialized radars quickly were developed when digital techniques became lightweight and more affordable. Pulse-Doppler radars combine all the benefits of long range and high velocity capability. Pulse-Doppler radars use

5194-431: The antenna beam cannot be detected by its velocity (only by its conventional reflectivity ). Ultra-wideband waveforms have been investigated by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) as a potential approach to Doppler processing due to its low average power, high resolution, and object-penetrating ability. While investigating the feasibility of whether UWB radar technology can incorporate Doppler processing to estimate

5292-432: The atoms in the star's atmosphere. A similar phenomenon occurs for emission , which is seen when an emitting gas glows due to excitation of the atoms from any mechanism, including heat. As electrons descend to lower energy levels, a spectrum is emitted that represents the jumps between the energy levels of the electrons, but lines are seen because again emission happens only at particular energies after excitation. An example

5390-413: The atoms. Dark bands in the absorption spectrum are due to the atoms in an intervening medium between source and observer. The atoms absorb certain frequencies of the light between emitter and detector/eye, then emit them in all directions. A dark band appears to the detector, due to the radiation scattered out of the light beam . For instance, dark bands in the light emitted by a distant star are due to

5488-403: The average number of photons in the cube of the relevant wavelength is much smaller than 1. It is not so difficult to experimentally observe non-uniform deposition of energy when light is absorbed, however this alone is not evidence of "particulate" behavior. Rather, it reflects the quantum nature of matter . Demonstrating that the light itself is quantized, not merely its interaction with matter,

5586-408: The combined energy transfer of many photons. In contrast, high frequency ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays are ionizing – individual photons of such high frequency have enough energy to ionize molecules or break chemical bonds . Ionizing radiation can cause chemical reactions and damage living cells beyond simply heating, and can be a health hazard and dangerous. James Clerk Maxwell derived

5684-400: The distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is called the wavelength . Waves of the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size, from very long radio waves longer than a continent to very short gamma rays smaller than atom nuclei. Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength, according to the equation: where v is the speed of the wave ( c in a vacuum or less in other media), f is

5782-524: The electromagnetic spectrum includes: radio waves , microwaves , infrared , visible light , ultraviolet , X-rays , and gamma rays . Electromagnetic waves are emitted by electrically charged particles undergoing acceleration , and these waves can subsequently interact with other charged particles, exerting force on them. EM waves carry energy, momentum , and angular momentum away from their source particle and can impart those quantities to matter with which they interact. Electromagnetic radiation

5880-447: The electromagnetic vacuum. The behavior of EM radiation and its interaction with matter depends on its frequency, and changes qualitatively as the frequency changes. Lower frequencies have longer wavelengths, and higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and are associated with photons of higher energy. There is no fundamental limit known to these wavelengths or energies, at either end of the spectrum, although photons with energies near

5978-527: The fields present in the same space due to other causes. Further, as they are vector fields, all magnetic and electric field vectors add together according to vector addition . For example, in optics two or more coherent light waves may interact and by constructive or destructive interference yield a resultant irradiance deviating from the sum of the component irradiances of the individual light waves. The electromagnetic fields of light are not affected by traveling through static electric or magnetic fields in

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6076-406: The frequency and λ is the wavelength. As waves cross boundaries between different media, their speeds change but their frequencies remain constant. Electromagnetic waves in free space must be solutions of Maxwell's electromagnetic wave equation . Two main classes of solutions are known, namely plane waves and spherical waves. The plane waves may be viewed as the limiting case of spherical waves at

6174-445: The ground station can be determined accurately. A notable example of utilizing Doppler information is in the detection and classification of small unmanned aerial vehicles . Radar systems operating at extremely high frequency offer enhanced Doppler resolution for a given coherent processing interval. This increased resolution allows access to micro-Doppler signatures (MDSs), where micro-Doppler refers to Doppler modulations caused by

6272-477: The individual frequency components are represented in terms of their power content, and the phase information is not preserved. Such a representation is called the power spectral density of the random process. Random electromagnetic radiation requiring this kind of analysis is, for example, encountered in the interior of stars, and in certain other very wideband forms of radiation such as the Zero point wave field of

6370-544: The intense radiation of radium . The radiation from pitchblende was differentiated into alpha rays ( alpha particles ) and beta rays ( beta particles ) by Ernest Rutherford through simple experimentation in 1899, but these proved to be charged particulate types of radiation. However, in 1900 the French scientist Paul Villard discovered a third neutrally charged and especially penetrating type of radiation from radium, and after he described it, Rutherford realized it must be yet

6468-800: The known speed of light. Maxwell therefore suggested that visible light (as well as invisible infrared and ultraviolet rays by inference) all consisted of propagating disturbances (or radiation) in the electromagnetic field. Radio waves were first produced deliberately by Heinrich Hertz in 1887, using electrical circuits calculated to produce oscillations at a much lower frequency than that of visible light, following recipes for producing oscillating charges and currents suggested by Maxwell's equations. Hertz also developed ways to detect these waves, and produced and characterized what were later termed radio waves and microwaves . Wilhelm Röntgen discovered and named X-rays . After experimenting with high voltages applied to an evacuated tube on 8 November 1895, he noticed

6566-677: The late 1970s this changed to linear polarization and the use of ferrite circulators at both X and K bands. PD radars operate at too high a PRF to use a transmit-receive gas filled switch, and most use solid-state devices to protect the receiver low-noise amplifier when the transmitter is fired. Doppler radars are used in aviation , sounding satellites, Major League Baseball 's StatCast system , meteorology , radar guns , radiology and healthcare (fall detection and risk assessment, nursing or clinic purpose ), and bistatic radar ( surface-to-air missiles ). Partly because of its common use by television meteorologists in on-air weather reporting,

6664-447: The media determines the degree of refraction, and is summarized by Snell's law . Light of composite wavelengths (natural sunlight) disperses into a visible spectrum passing through a prism, because of the wavelength-dependent refractive index of the prism material ( dispersion ); that is, each component wave within the composite light is bent a different amount. EM radiation exhibits both wave properties and particle properties at

6762-407: The nearby violet light. Ritter's experiments were an early precursor to what would become photography. Ritter noted that the ultraviolet rays (which at first were called "chemical rays") were capable of causing chemical reactions. In 1862–64 James Clerk Maxwell developed equations for the electromagnetic field which suggested that waves in the field would travel with a speed that was very close to

6860-454: The newer V-46 engine. Drozd APS was later replaced by the simpler non-APS Kontakt-5 explosive reactive armour . Drozd was also fitted to a small number of T-62s , which were designated T-62D or, if fitted with the V-46-5M engine upgrade, T-62D-1. Drozd was exported in small numbers to China and to an undisclosed Middle-Eastern client. It was subsequently discontinued. The Drozd-2 system

6958-626: The oscillations of the two fields are on average perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation, forming a transverse wave . Electromagnetic radiation is commonly referred to as "light", EM, EMR, or electromagnetic waves. The position of an electromagnetic wave within the electromagnetic spectrum can be characterized by either its frequency of oscillation or its wavelength. Electromagnetic waves of different frequency are called by different names since they have different sources and effects on matter. In order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength,

7056-422: The oscillatory movement of a target's structural components, in contrast to bulk Doppler, which relates to the overall motion of the target. Typically, UAVs have rotating blades that generate distinctive MDSs, enabling effective target discrimination between UAVs and other airborne objects, such as birds. Electromagnetic radiation In physics , electromagnetic radiation ( EMR ) consists of waves of

7154-401: The particle of light was given the name photon , to correspond with other particles being described around this time, such as the electron and proton . A photon has an energy, E , proportional to its frequency, f , by where h is the Planck constant , λ {\displaystyle \lambda } is the wavelength and c is the speed of light . This is sometimes known as

7252-544: The pitcher is moving away from the catcher. The catcher catches balls less frequently because of the pitcher's backward motion (the frequency decreases). If the pitcher moves at an angle, but at the same speed, the frequency variation at which the receiver catches balls is less, as the distance between the two changes more slowly. From the point of view of the pitcher, the frequency remains constant (whether he's throwing balls or transmitting microwaves). Since with electromagnetic radiation like microwaves or with sound, frequency

7350-545: The position of the echoes and having a greater power The work was accelerated after such event in the United States as the 1974 Super Outbreak when 148 tornadoes roared through thirteen states. The reflectivity only radar of the time could only locate the precipitation structure of the thunderclouds but not the mesocyclonic rotation and divergence of winds leading to the development of tornadoes or downbursts . The NSSL Doppler became operational in 1971 and led to

7448-428: The radiation's power and its frequency. EMR of lower energy ultraviolet or lower frequencies (i.e., near ultraviolet , visible light, infrared, microwaves, and radio waves) is non-ionizing because its photons do not individually have enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules or to break chemical bonds . The effect of non-ionizing radiation on chemical systems and living tissue is primarily simply heating, through

7546-406: The recession. This variation of frequency also depends on the direction the wave source is moving with respect to the observer; it is maximum when the source is moving directly toward or away from the observer and diminishes with increasing angle between the direction of motion and the direction of the waves, until when the source is moving at right angles to the observer, there is no shift. Imagine

7644-470: The red part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded with a thermometer . These "calorific rays" were later termed infrared. In 1801, German physicist Johann Wilhelm Ritter discovered ultraviolet in an experiment similar to Herschel's, using sunlight and a glass prism. Ritter noted that invisible rays near the violet edge of a solar spectrum dispersed by a triangular prism darkened silver chloride preparations more quickly than did

7742-458: The same frame of reference. The result derived with c as the speed of light and v as the target radial velocity gives the shifted frequency ( f r {\displaystyle f_{r}} ) as a function of the original frequency ( f t {\displaystyle f_{t}} ) : which simplifies to The "beat frequency", (Doppler frequency) ( f d {\displaystyle f_{d}} ),

7840-412: The same points in space (see illustrations). In the far-field EM radiation which is described by the two source-free Maxwell curl operator equations, a time-change in one type of field is proportional to the curl of the other. These derivatives require that the E and B fields in EMR are in-phase (see mathematics section below). An important aspect of light's nature is its frequency . The frequency of

7938-464: The same time (see wave-particle duality ). Both wave and particle characteristics have been confirmed in many experiments. Wave characteristics are more apparent when EM radiation is measured over relatively large timescales and over large distances while particle characteristics are more evident when measuring small timescales and distances. For example, when electromagnetic radiation is absorbed by matter, particle-like properties will be more obvious when

8036-472: The source, the power density of EM radiation from an isotropic source decreases with the inverse square of the distance from the source; this is called the inverse-square law . This is in contrast to dipole parts of the EM field, the near field, which varies in intensity according to an inverse cube power law, and thus does not transport a conserved amount of energy over distances but instead fades with distance, with its energy (as noted) rapidly returning to

8134-444: The specific term " Doppler Radar " has erroneously become popularly synonymous with the type of radar used in meteorology. Most modern weather radars use the pulse-Doppler technique to examine the motion of precipitation , but it is only a part of the processing of their data. So, while these radars use a highly specialized form of Doppler radar , this type of radar is much broader in its meaning and its applications. The work on

8232-549: The speed in a medium to speed in a vacuum. Electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths other than those of visible light were discovered in the early 19th century. The discovery of infrared radiation is ascribed to astronomer William Herschel , who published his results in 1800 before the Royal Society of London . Herschel used a glass prism to refract light from the Sun and detected invisible rays that caused heating beyond

8330-410: The term associated with the changing static electric field of the particle and the magnetic term that results from the particle's uniform velocity are both associated with the near field, and do not comprise electromagnetic radiation. Electric and magnetic fields obey the properties of superposition . Thus, a field due to any particular particle or time-varying electric or magnetic field contributes to

8428-475: The transmitter or absorbed by a nearby receiver (such as a transformer secondary coil). In the Liénard–Wiechert potential formulation of the electric and magnetic fields due to motion of a single particle (according to Maxwell's equations), the terms associated with acceleration of the particle are those that are responsible for the part of the field that is regarded as electromagnetic radiation. By contrast,

8526-427: The transmitter to affect them. This causes them to be independent in the sense that their existence and their energy, after they have left the transmitter, is completely independent of both transmitter and receiver. Due to conservation of energy , the amount of power passing through any spherical surface drawn around the source is the same. Because such a surface has an area proportional to the square of its distance from

8624-582: The velocity of a moving target when the platform is stationary, a 2013 ARL report highlighted issues related to target range migration. However, researchers have suggested that these issues can be alleviated if the correct matched filter is used. In military airborne applications, the Doppler effect has 2 main advantages. Firstly, the radar is more robust against counter-measure. Return signals from weather, terrain, and countermeasures like chaff are filtered out before detection, which reduces computer and operator loading in hostile environments. Secondly, against

8722-524: The wave theory, however, Einstein's ideas were met initially with great skepticism among established physicists. Eventually Einstein's explanation was accepted as new particle-like behavior of light was observed, such as the Compton effect . As a photon is absorbed by an atom , it excites the atom, elevating an electron to a higher energy level (one that is on average farther from the nucleus). When an electron in an excited molecule or atom descends to

8820-574: Was a mechanical device containing a steel ball rotated by a motor whose speed was controlled by the Doppler determined ground speed. The angle of this motor was controlled by the 'drift angle'. Two fixed wheels, one 'fore and aft' the other 'left to right' drove counters to output distance along track and across track difference. The aircraft's compass was integrated into the computer so that a desired track could be set between two waypoints on an over water great circle route. It may seem surprising to 21st. century readers, but it actually worked rather well and

8918-713: Was abandoned by the Army, but completed by the Soviet Naval Infantry to increase protection for about 250 older T-55 tanks in 1981–82 (newer T-72s were problematic on landing craft, due to size and weight, and $ 170 million Drozd development was much cheaper than a commencement of an all-new time-consuming tank design). Tanks were upgraded to T-55M standard and equipped with Drozd at the tank rebuilding plant in Lviv , Ukraine, and kept in war stores for secrecy. The rebuilt tanks were designated T-55AD, or T-55AD1 if they had

9016-422: Was an experimental anomaly not explained by the wave theory: the photoelectric effect , in which light striking a metal surface ejected electrons from the surface, causing an electric current to flow across an applied voltage . Experimental measurements demonstrated that the energy of individual ejected electrons was proportional to the frequency , rather than the intensity , of the light. Furthermore, below

9114-602: Was based on Doppler principles, and originally patented as "Pulsed Doppler Radar Methods and Means," #3,196,436. Modern Doppler systems are light enough for mobile ground surveillance associated with infantry and surface ships. These detect motion from vehicles and personnel for night and all weather combat operation. Modern police radar guns are a smaller, more portable version of these systems. Early Doppler radar sets relied on large analog filters to achieve acceptable performance. Analog filters, waveguide, and amplifiers pick up vibration like microphones, so bulky vibration damping

9212-598: Was developed to give a 120-degree protection arc with more projectile launchers. It was intended to be installed on the then-upcoming T-80U main battle tanks. One prototype vehicle (T-80UM-2) fitted with the system was used in Ukraine and lost in March 2022. An even more sophisticated all-round active protection system is the Arena Active Protection System . Doppler radar A Doppler radar

9310-442: Was extracted. This proved useful in both weather and air traffic control radars. The velocity information provided another input to the software tracker, and improved computer tracking. Because of the low pulse repetition frequency (PRF) of most coherent pulsed radars, which maximizes the coverage in range, the amount of Doppler processing is limited. The Doppler processor can only process velocities up to ± ⁠ 1 / 2 ⁠

9408-517: Was great improvement over other 'dead reckoning' methods available at the time. It was generally backed up with position fixes from Loran , VORs , NDBs , or as a last resort sextant and chronometer. It was possible to cross the Atlantic with an error of a couple of miles when in range of a couple of VORs or NDBs. Its major shortcoming in practice was the sea state, as a calm sea gave poor radar returns and hence unreliable Doppler measurements. But this

9506-503: Was infrequent on the North Atlantic Location-based Doppler techniques were also used in the U.S. Navy's historical Transit satellite navigation system , with satellite transmitters and ground-based receivers, and are currently used in the civilian Argos system , which uses satellite receivers and ground-based transmitters. In these cases, the ground stations are either stationary or slow-moving, and

9604-462: Was rotated by a servo mechanism to align with the aircraft's track by equalising the Doppler shift from the left and right hand antennas. A synchro transmitted the platform angle to the flight deck, thus providing a measure of 'drift angle'. The ground speed was determined from the Doppler shift between the forward and aft facing beams. These were displayed on the flight deck on single instrument. Some aircraft had an additional 'Doppler Computer'. This

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