115-399: Dunlop Ltd. (formerly Dunlop Rubber ) was a British multinational company involved in the manufacture of various natural rubber goods. Its business was founded in 1889 by Harvey du Cros and he involved John Boyd Dunlop who had re-invented and developed the first pneumatic tyre . It was one of the first multinationals, and under du Cros and, after him, under Eric Geddes, grew to be one of
230-708: A "vote-rigging factory" in a disused warehouse, stealing and intercepting hundreds and possibly thousands of ballot papers to achieve this. Three councillors, Mohammed Islam, Muhammad Afzal (later cleared of wrongdoing) and Mohammed Kazi were accused of voter fraud, with the elections having to be rerun. All three were barred from standing in the following election. Aston is part of the Birmingham Ladywood constituency, held by Labour since 1940 and represented by Labour MP Shabana Mahmood since 2010. The 2011 census found that 22,636 people were living in Aston. It
345-903: A car wheel manufacturing plant was built. In 1910 Dunlop developed its first aeroplane tyre and golf ball. Between 1904 and 1909, the French Dunlop subsidiary lost a total of £200,000, as European rivals such as Michelin of France and Continental of Germany overtook it in the motor tyre market. In 1909, Dunlop of France, and in 1910, Dunlop of Germany were wholly acquired by the British parent in order to enforce stronger quality control. In August 1912 Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre went out of business though retaining certain financial commitments. It passed its activities to Dunlop Rubber in exchange for shares. Then it changed its name to The Parent Tyre Company Limited. Dunlop Rubber purchased certain of its assets including goodwill and trading rights, and in exchange
460-792: A cultivar of the Kazakh dandelion ( Taraxacum kok-saghyz ) that is suitable for commercial production of natural rubber. In collaboration with Continental Tires , IME began a pilot facility. Many other plants produce forms of latex rich in isoprene polymers, though not all produce usable forms of polymer as easily as the Pará. Some of them require more elaborate processing to produce anything like usable rubber, and most are more difficult to tap. Some produce other desirable materials, for example gutta-percha ( Palaquium gutta ) and chicle from Manilkara species. Others that have been commercially exploited, or at least showed promise as rubber sources, include
575-611: A distribution warehouse for East End Foods. Aston Manor Brewery (Now Aston Manor Cider ) was started in Thimble Mill Lane in 1982 by former employees of Ansell's after Ansells' Aston Brewery closed. From 1956 to 1969, Aston Cross was the Midlands base of Associated Television (ATV) which had its Alpha Studios on Aston Road North. The ATV office building later became the studios of radio stations BRMB and Xtra-AM . Although both stations moved to Birmingham's Broad Street in
690-447: A fiber, sometimes called 'elastic', had significant value to the textile industry because of its excellent elongation and recovery properties. For these purposes, manufactured rubber fiber was made as either an extruded round fiber or rectangular fibers cut into strips from extruded film. Because of its low dye acceptance, feel and appearance, the rubber fiber was either covered by yarn of another fiber or directly woven with other yarns into
805-510: A form of assisted biological coagulation. Little care is taken to exclude twigs, leaves, and even bark from the lumps that are formed, which may also include tree lace. Earth scrap is material that gathers around the base of the tree. It arises from latex overflowing from the cut and running down the bark, from rain flooding a collection cup containing latex, and from spillage from tappers' buckets during collection. It contains soil and other contaminants, and has variable rubber content, depending on
920-586: A further document with implications for Dunlop products entitled Report on the Supply of Certain Rubber Footwear , which covered rubber boots of all kinds including wellingtons and overboots. In 1952 a group of British military veterans raided Dunlop's annual shareholder meeting to protest against British colonialism and the Malayan Emergency . This protest which took place in the aftermath of
1035-752: A given strain, thereby increasing the elastic force constant and making the rubber harder and less extensible. Raw rubber storage depots and rubber processing can produce malodour that is serious enough to become a source of complaints and protest to those living in the vicinity. Microbial impurities originate during the processing of block rubber. These impurities break down during storage or thermal degradation and produce volatile organic compounds. Examination of these compounds using gas chromatography / mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and gas chromatography (GC) indicates that they contain sulfur, ammonia, alkenes , ketones , esters , hydrogen sulfide , nitrogen, and low-molecular-weight fatty acids (C2–C5). When latex concentrate
1150-535: A health centre; and helping more than 1300 people find work (more than the target of 400). Crime levels in Aston have remained stagnant in recent years. In December 2010, there were 369 reported crimes, the majority being for antisocial behaviour , while in December 2019, there were 328, mostly for violent offences. The crime rate in the ward is 10.35, which is higher than in other areas like Handsworth Wood (6.59) but lower than Nechells (16.6). The majority of
1265-520: A large stretch ratio and high resilience and also is buoyant and water-proof. Industrial demand for rubber-like materials began to outstrip natural rubber supplies by the end of the 19th century, leading to the synthesis of synthetic rubber in 1909 by chemical means. The major commercial source of natural rubber latex is the Amazonian rubber tree ( Hevea brasiliensis ), a member of the spurge family , Euphorbiaceae . Once native to Brazil,
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#17327733540741380-607: A new company, Rubber Tyre Manufacturing, to acquire Byrne Bros. E. J. Byrne was contracted to be managing director for five years. From the late 1890s, Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre began to acquire its own rubber mills, and began to process rubber, whereas previously it had assembled tyres using components from other manufacturers. In 1901 Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre used its majority holding to rename "Rubber Tyre Manufacturing" to "Dunlop Rubber". Arthur Du Cros replaced E. J. Byrne. From 1900, Dunlop began to diversify from cycle tyres. The company manufactured its first motor car tyre in 1900. In 1906,
1495-568: A notorious local gang known as the Burger Bar Boys, who had been trying to exact revenge on members of their rival gang the Johnson Crew: a notorious local gang originating in the mid-1980s. The Aston ward is represented by two Liberal Democrat councillors: Mumtaz Hussain and Ayoub Khan. In 2004, the ward saw a voter fraud scandal in which Labour councillors were accused of a systematic attempt to rig elections. They had set up
1610-432: A petroleum refinery or other natural incineration processes, is sometimes used as an additive to rubber to improve its strength, especially in vehicle tires. During vulcanization, rubber's polyisoprene molecules (long chains of isoprene) are heated and cross-linked with molecular bonds to sulfur, forming a 3-D matrix. The optimal percentage of sulfur is approximately 10%. In this form, the polyisoprene molecules orientation
1725-435: A point where it shares properties of both; i.e., if it is heated and cooled, it is degraded but not destroyed. The final properties of a rubber item depend not just on the polymer, but also on modifiers and fillers, such as carbon black , factice , whiting and others. Rubber particles are formed in the cytoplasm of specialized latex-producing cells called laticifers within rubber plants. Rubber particles are surrounded by
1840-451: A significant amount of rubber. Gloves (medical, household, and industrial) and toy balloons were large consumers of rubber, although the type of rubber used is concentrated latex. Significant tonnage of rubber was used as adhesives in many manufacturing industries and products, although the two most noticeable were the paper and the carpet industries. Rubber was commonly used to make rubber bands and pencil erasers . Rubber produced as
1955-453: A single phospholipid membrane with hydrophobic tails pointed inward. The membrane allows biosynthetic proteins to be sequestered at the surface of the growing rubber particle, which allows new monomeric units to be added from outside the biomembrane, but within the lacticifer. The rubber particle is an enzymatically active entity that contains three layers of material, the rubber particle, a biomembrane and free monomeric units. The biomembrane
2070-401: A wire that encircles the tree. This wire incorporates a spring so it can stretch as the tree grows. The latex is led into the cup by a galvanised "spout" knocked into the bark. Rubber tapping normally takes place early in the morning, when the internal pressure of the tree is highest. A good tapper can tap a tree every 20 seconds on a standard half-spiral system, and a common daily "task" size
2185-507: A world leader in the supply of fire hoses and fire fighting equipment. That year Dunlop had operating profits of £31.8 million, with net profits of £11.2 million. By the late 1960s, Dunlop was the 35th largest company in the world outside the United States. In 1970, Dunlop had 102,000 employees. In 1971, Dunlop merged with Pirelli of Italy to form the world's third-largest tyre company after Goodyear and Firestone. The merger
2300-442: Is 25 cm (vertical) bark consumption per year. The latex-containing tubes in the bark ascend in a spiral to the right. For this reason, tapping cuts usually ascend to the left to cut more tubes. The trees drip latex for about four hours, stopping as latex coagulates naturally on the tapping cut, thus blocking the latex tubes in the bark. Tappers usually rest and have a meal after finishing their tapping work and then start collecting
2415-779: Is 35% less than the average income (£18,788) in England as a whole. There are three secondary schools in Aston: Broadway Academy , refurbished and opened by the Duke of Kent in 2011, King Edward VI Aston , the only grammar school in the constituency, and Aston Manor School . There are seven primary schools: Aston Tower Community Primary School, Birchfield Community School, Manor Park Primary Academy, Mansfield Green E-ACT Academy, Sacred Heart Catholic Primary School, Prince Albert Primary School, and Yew Tree Community School. Aston Library and Birchfield Library are within
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#17327733540742530-582: Is a large estate consisting of sixteen tower blocks, five of which have since been demolished. The project was approved in 1968. Three 20-storey tower blocks on the complex contained 354 flats alone. Today, Aston gives its name to Aston Villa F.C. and Aston University (the campus of which is not in Aston but about 1.3 miles to the south in Birmingham city centre). Aston University is one of four universities in Birmingham. Aston Villa have played at Villa Park since 1897, and it has traditionally been one of
2645-418: Is a natural polymer of isoprene (polyisoprene), and an elastomer (a stretchy polymer). Polymers are simply chains of molecules that can be linked together. Rubber is one of the few naturally occurring polymers and prized for its high stretch ratio, resilience, and water-proof properties. Other examples of natural polymers include tortoise shell , amber , and animal horn . When harvested, latex rubber takes
2760-532: Is a sticky, milky and white colloid drawn off by making incisions in the bark and collecting the fluid in vessels in a process called "tapping". The latex then is refined into the rubber that is ready for commercial processing. In major areas, latex is allowed to coagulate in the collection cup. The coagulated lumps are collected and processed into dry forms for sale. Natural rubber is used extensively in many applications and products, either alone or in combination with other materials. In most of its useful forms, it has
2875-415: Is between 450 and 650 trees. Trees are usually tapped on alternate or third days, although many variations in timing, length and number of cuts are used. "Tappers would make a slash in the bark with a small hatchet. These slanting cuts allowed latex to flow from ducts located on the exterior or the inner layer of bark ( cambium ) of the tree. Since the cambium controls the growth of the tree, growth stops if it
2990-496: Is cut. Thus, rubber tapping demanded accuracy, so that the incisions would not be too many given the size of the tree, or too deep, which could stunt its growth or kill it." It is usual to tap a panel at least twice, sometimes three times, during the tree's life. The economic life of the tree depends on how well the tapping is carried out, as the critical factor is bark consumption. A standard in Malaysia for alternate daily tapping
3105-438: Is held tightly to the rubber core by the high negative charge along the double bonds of the rubber polymer backbone. Free monomeric units and conjugated proteins make up the outer layer. The rubber precursor is isopentenyl pyrophosphate (an allylic compound), which elongates by Mg -dependent condensation by the action of rubber transferase. The monomer adds to the pyrophosphate end of the growing polymer. The process displaces
3220-572: Is low and strain results from small changes of bond lengths and angles: this caused the Challenger disaster , when the American Space Shuttle 's flattened o-rings failed to relax to fill a widening gap. The glass transition is fast and reversible: the force resumes on heating. The parallel chains of stretched rubber are susceptible to crystallization. This takes some time because turns of twisted chains have to move out of
3335-899: Is not cultivated widely in its native continent of South America because of the South American leaf blight , and other natural predators there. Rubber latex is extracted from rubber trees. The economic life of rubber trees in plantations is around 32 years, with up to 7 years being an immature phase and about 25 years of productive phase. The soil requirement is well-drained, weathered soil consisting of laterite , lateritic types, sedimentary types, nonlateritic red or alluvial soils. The climatic conditions for optimum growth of rubber trees are: Many high-yielding clones have been developed for commercial planting. These clones yield more than 2,000 kilograms per hectare (1,800 lb/acre) of dry rubber per year, under ideal conditions. Rubber production has been linked to deforestation. Rubber therefore
3450-588: Is one of seven commodities included in the 2023 EU Regulation on Deforestation-free products (EUDR), which aims to guarantee that the products European Union (EU) citizens consume do not contribute to deforestation or forest degradation worldwide. In places such as Kerala and Sri Lanka, where coconuts are in abundance, the half shell of coconut was used as the latex collection container. Glazed pottery or aluminium or plastic cups became more common in Kerala-India and other countries. The cups are supported by
3565-449: Is produced by smallholders, who collect rubber from trees far from the nearest factory. Many Indonesian smallholders, who farm paddies in remote areas, tap dispersed trees on their way to work in the paddy fields and collect the latex (or the coagulated latex) on their way home. As it is often impossible to preserve the latex sufficiently to get it to a factory that processes latex in time for it to be used to make high quality products, and as
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3680-529: Is produced from rubber, sulfuric acid is used for coagulation. This produces malodourous hydrogen sulfide. The industry can mitigate these bad odours with scrubber systems . Rubber is the polymer cis-1,4-polyisoprene – with a molecular weight of 100,000 to 1,000,000 daltons . Typically, a small percentage (up to 5% of dry mass) of other materials, such as proteins , fatty acids , resins , and inorganic materials (salts) are found in natural rubber. Polyisoprene can also be created synthetically, producing what
3795-567: Is sometimes applied to the tree-obtained version of natural rubber in order to distinguish it from the synthetic version. The first use of rubber was by the indigenous cultures of Mesoamerica . The earliest archeological evidence of the use of natural latex from the Hevea tree comes from the Olmec culture, in which rubber was first used for making balls for the Mesoamerican ballgame . Rubber
3910-402: Is sometimes referred to as "synthetic natural rubber", but the synthetic and natural routes are distinct. Some natural rubber sources, such as gutta-percha , are composed of trans-1,4-polyisoprene, a structural isomer that has similar properties. Natural rubber is an elastomer and a thermoplastic . Once the rubber is vulcanized, it is a thermoset . Most rubber in everyday use is vulcanized to
4025-479: Is still random but they become aligned when the rubber is stretched. This sulfur vulcanization makes the rubber stronger and more rigid, but still very elastic. And through the vulcanization process, the sulfur and latex are meant to be totally used up in individual form. Natural rubber latex is shipped from factories in Southeast Asia , South America , and West and Central Africa to destinations around
4140-544: Is the sixth most populous ward in the city. It is a very ethnically diverse community, with 44% of the population born outside the United Kingdom. The largest ethnic group was Asian at 69.1%. More specifically, the Pakistani ethnic group was the largest at 30.9% of all Asians. Black British was the second largest ethnic group at 16.4%. White British was the third largest ethnic group at 7.8%. The ethnic makeup of
4255-469: The 1973 oil crisis . As a result of increasing competition in the tyre industry, and the disastrous results of the Pirelli tie-up, Dunlop had amassed massive debts. Sir Reay Geddes stepped down as chairman in 1978 and Sir Campbell Fraser took over. Between 1978 and 1981 Dunlop spent US$ 102 million on modernising its European tyre business. The British workforce was cut from 13,000 to 7,000. Angus and
4370-770: The Aston Hippodrome and the Bartons Arms public house . Gospel Hall on Park Lane was opened in 1892 and demolished in the 1970s to be rebuilt at the top of Park Lane in 1979. The original hall had a seating capacity of 73. Another meeting place was the Ellen Knox Memorial Hall which was next door to the Midland Vinegar Brewery. The brewery was owned by the Midland Brewery Company was built around 1877. It
4485-718: The British Malayan headhunting scandal , saw the soldiers throwing leaflets across the room containing both anti-colonial messages and photographs of British troops posing with the decapitated heads of suspected communist and anti-colonial guerrillas. In 1958, Dunlop acquired British rival John Bull Rubber which also included Metalastic . Throughout the 50´s Dunlop had manufacturing plants in Brazil and New Zealand. The Dunlop Aquafort range of underwater swimming equipment, including one- and two-piece dry suits , wetsuits , weight-belt, snorkel , diving mask and swimming fins
4600-625: The City of Birmingham Tramways Company Ltd on behalf of the Urban District Council before formally passing to Birmingham Corporation Tramways on 1 January 1912. Aston underwent large scale redevelopment following the Second World War . South Aston was designated a renewal area involving comprehensive redevelopment of the traditional area known as "Aston New Town". The area, was more commonly called simply " Newtown " and
4715-590: The Ladysmith passenger car tyre plant. Apollo Tyres retained its Durban plant, which manufactured truck & bus radial (TBR) tyres and off-highway tyres used in the mining and construction industries (The Durban plant however closed in 2014 after management failed to maintain profitability). Sumitomo RI had also previously acquired ownership rights for the Dunlop brand in 32 African markets. In 2018 Sumitomo RI started manufacturing truck & bus radial (TBR) tyres at
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4830-505: The Mullins effect and the Payne effect and is often modeled as hyperelastic . Rubber strain crystallizes . Because there are weakened allylic C-H bonds in each repeat unit , natural rubber is susceptible to vulcanisation as well as being sensitive to ozone cracking . The two main solvents for rubber are turpentine and naphtha (petroleum). Because rubber does not dissolve easily,
4945-728: The Putumayo genocide . Between the 1880s–1913 Julio César Arana and his company that would become the Peruvian Amazon Company controlled the Putumayo river. W.E. Hardenburg, Benjamin Saldaña Rocca and Roger Casement were influential figures in exposing these atrocities. Roger Casement was also prominent in revealing the Congo atrocities to the world. Days before entering Iquitos by boat Casement wrote "'Caoutchouc
5060-557: The cytosol . In plants, isoprene pyrophosphate can also be obtained from the 1-deox-D-xyulose-5-phosphate/2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate pathway within plasmids. The relative ratio of the farnesyl pyrophosphate initiator unit and isoprenyl pyrophosphate elongation monomer determines the rate of new particle synthesis versus elongation of existing particles. Though rubber is known to be produced by only one enzyme, extracts of latex host numerous small molecular weight proteins with unknown function. The proteins possibly serve as cofactors, as
5175-499: The pneumatic tyre principle. Willie Hume created publicity for J. B. Dunlop's discovery by winning seven out of eight cycle races with his pneumatic tyres. To own the rights and exploit the discovery, the "Pneumatic Tyre and Booth's Cycle Agency Co. Ltd" was incorporated in 1889 and floated by Harvey du Cros , who was, amongst other things, president of the Irish Cyclists' Association. The invitation to du Cros to participate
5290-463: The 1970s, despite having recognised by the mid-1960s the potential drop in demand as the more durable radial tyres swept through the market. After taking on excessive debt Dunlop was acquired by the industrial conglomerate BTR in 1985. Since then, ownership of the various Dunlop trademarks has become fragmented. In 1888, John Boyd Dunlop , a Scottish veterinary surgeon living in Ireland discovered
5405-457: The Académie (published in 1755) that described many of rubber's properties. This has been referred to as the first scientific paper on rubber. In England, Joseph Priestley , in 1770, observed that a piece of the material was extremely good for rubbing off pencil marks on paper, hence the name "rubber". It slowly made its way around England. In 1764, François Fresnau discovered that turpentine
5520-549: The Birmingham average of 20.8%. Moreover, 15.6% do not speak English as their main language and cannot speak it well, well above the national average of 1.9%. Aston has one of the highest rates of unemployment in the city, with 57.8% of residents classed as economically active compared to the city average of 69.3% and national average of 77%. It is the 11th most deprived ward in the city. The majority of employed residents (56%) work in lower skilled occupations, such as caring, leisure and sales. The average income in Aston (£12,033)
5635-673: The Congo Free State for more information on the rubber trade in the Congo Free State in the late 1800s and early 1900s.) The rubber boom in the Amazon also similarly affected indigenous populations to varying degrees. Correrias, or slave raids were frequent in Colombia, Peru and Bolivia where many were either captured or killed. The most well known case of atrocities generated from rubber extraction in South America came from
5750-654: The Dunlop Brand and sold most of the company, including all of the Dunlop Tyre trademark rights in Africa, to Sumitomo Rubber Industries in 2013. Dunlop Tyres International had owned the rights to various Dunlop brands in a number of countries outside South Africa, and these rights were sold to Sports Direct in 2006. Sumitomo Rubber Industries sold tyres for road vehicles with the Dunlop brand from 1985 to 1999. In 1999 Sumitomo RI and Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company of
5865-474: The Ladysmith plant. Much of this TBR equipment was acquired from the closed Apollo Tyres Durban plant. Sumitomo RI invested heavily in the Ladysmith plant. By 2018 the plant was almost double the size since they acquired the company in 2013. Natural rubber Rubber , also called India rubber , latex , Amazonian rubber , caucho , or caoutchouc , as initially produced, consists of polymers of
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#17327733540745980-591: The UK tyre market. A report by the Monopolies and Restrictive Practices Commission in that year found that Dunlop and the four other main sellers in the UK market ( Goodyear , Avon , Firestone and Michelin) companies had arrangements which resulted in fixed prices. These arrangements were forced to change, and Dunlop's market share decreased. In July 1956, the Monopolies and Restrictive Practices Commission published
6095-617: The US formed a joint venture. Goodyear obtained the Dunlop tyre assets in Europe and the US, and Sumitomo RI continued to sell Dunlop tyres in other countries. The Dunlop Tyres company in South Africa was acquired by the Indian company Apollo Tyres in 2007. In December 2013, Apollo Tyres sold most of its South African operations to Sumitomo RI for $ 60 million (Rs 3.33 billion) including
6210-409: The amount of contaminants. Earth scrap is collected by field workers two or three times a year and may be cleaned in a scrap-washer to recover the rubber, or sold to a contractor who cleans it and recovers the rubber. It is of low quality. Latex coagulates in the cups if kept for long and must be collected before this happens. The collected latex, "field latex", is transferred into coagulation tanks for
6325-588: The area drastically changed in the 1950s and 1960s with immigration from the Commonwealth . Most of the immigrants were from the Indian subcontinent most notably from Pakistan , though a significant number were also from the Caribbean . Aston is a young ward, with 33.5% of the population under 18, compared to the Birmingham average of 25.5%. 31.7% of residents in Aston have no qualifications, higher than
6440-492: The board, and quickly sold the business again, this time as the Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Company, for £5 million, providing a gross profit to Hooley's syndicate including du Cros of £1.7 million. Associate and supplier Byrne Bros India Rubber, at their Manor Rubber Mills, Aston Cross , had moved from making tyre and tube components to complete inner tubes and covers. In June 1896 du Cros formed
6555-458: The business to Sports Direct International for £40 million. In 1996, Dunlop Aircraft Tyres Ltd of Birmingham was sold to a group of investors backed by 3i for £10 million. In 1998, BTR sold BTR Aerospace Group , including Dunlop Aviation and Dunlop Precision Rubber, to Doughty Hanson & Co for £510 million to form Dunlop Standard . In 2004, Dunlop Standard was sold to Meggitt for £800 million. Meggitt has inherited
6670-486: The church was rebuilt by J. A. Chatwin during the period 1879 to 1890; the 15th century tower and spire, which was partly rebuilt in 1776, being the only survivors of the medieval building. The ancient parish of Aston (known as Aston juxta Birmingham) was large. It was separated from the parish of Birmingham by AB Row, which currently exists in the Eastside of the city at just 50 yards in length. Aston, as Aston Manor ,
6785-535: The company owned about 60,000 acres of rubber plantations. In 1916, construction began on the Fort Dunlop site across 400 acres. By 1918, Dunlop was the fourteenth largest manufacturing company in Britain, and its only large-scale tyre manufacturer. Arthur Du Cros became personally close to the financier James White , and appointed him as Dunlop's financial advisor in 1913. By 1919, White had acquired control of
6900-581: The company rubber plantations were sold. By July 1983, the Malaysian businessman Ghafar Baba had built a 26.1 per cent stake in the company. In September 1983, the European tyre business was sold to its former subsidiary, Sumitomo Rubber Industries Ltd of Japan, for £82 million. In 1984 the remaining tyre factories in New Zealand and India were sold for £200 million. In 1985 the company
7015-643: The company was engaged in active manufacture where its tyres were sold. Pneumatic Tyre partnered with local cycle firms such as Clement Cycles in France and Adler in Germany in order to limit the necessary capital expenditure. An American business was established in the USA in 1893 with a factory in Buffalo, New York , after Harvey du Cros junior was old enough (21) to sign the necessary deeds. In 1893 home manufacture
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#17327733540747130-592: The company. White speculated on the rubber futures market with disastrous results when the price of rubber collapsed. Meanwhile, there were also quality control problems with tyres. This came to a head in August 1921 when the company announced a loss of £8 million on the year's trading. The company was saved by the intervention of Frederick Szarvasy of the British Foreign and Colonial Corporation . White's board member nominees were removed, and Sir Eric Geddes
7245-625: The crime is of the nature of violence, antisocial behaviour, vehicle crime, and robbery. On 2 January 2003, gunmen shot at three innocent teenage girls who were celebrating the New Year in the Birchfield area near Aston. Two of the girls were killed and another was seriously injured. More than 18 bullets were fired from at least two weapons. Four men were later tried and found guilty of murder in March 2005. Marcus Ellis (the half-brother of one of
7360-407: The dry rubber produced. Latex that drips onto the ground, "earth scrap", is also collected periodically for processing of low-grade product. Cup lump is the coagulated material found in the collection cup when the tapper next visits the tree to tap it again. It arises from latex clinging to the walls of the cup after the latex was last poured into the bucket, and from late-dripping latex exuded before
7475-490: The early Merlin engine Supermarine Spitfires that saw service during the early stages of World War II and the Battle of Britain . By 1946, Dunlop had 70,000 employees, and sales outlets in nearly every country in the world. In 1948 Dunlop invented the self-sealing tyre, which reduced the risk from blowouts. In the early 1950s, Dunlop developed Maxaret , the first anti-lock braking system . By 1955 Dunlop had almost half of
7590-613: The early 1900s, the Congo Free State in Africa was also a significant source of natural rubber latex, mostly gathered by forced labor . King Leopold II's colonial state brutally enforced production quotas due to the high price of natural rubber at the time. Tactics to enforce the rubber quotas included removing the hands of victims to prove they had been killed. Soldiers often came back from raids with baskets full of chopped-off hands. Villages that resisted were razed to encourage better compliance locally. (See Atrocities in
7705-421: The export of seeds or plants. In 1876, Henry Wickham smuggled 70,000 Amazonian rubber tree seeds from Brazil and delivered them to Kew Gardens , England. Only 2,400 of these germinated. Seedlings were then sent to India , British Ceylon ( Sri Lanka ), Dutch East Indies ( Indonesia ), Singapore , and British Malaya . Malaya (now Peninsular Malaysia ) was later to become the biggest producer of rubber. In
7820-636: The fabric. Rubber yarns were used in foundation garments. While rubber is still used in textile manufacturing, its low tenacity limits its use in lightweight garments because latex lacks resistance to oxidizing agents and is damaged by aging, sunlight, oil and perspiration. The textile industry turned to neoprene (polymer of chloroprene ), a type of synthetic rubber, as well as another more commonly used elastomer fiber, spandex (also known as elastane), because of their superiority to rubber in both strength and durability. Rubber exhibits unique physical and chemical properties. Rubber's stress–strain behavior exhibits
7935-477: The first technique for tapping trees for latex without causing serious harm to the tree. Because of his fervent promotion of this crop, he is popularly remembered by the nickname "Mad Ridley". Before World War II significant uses included door and window profiles, hoses, belts, gaskets, matting , flooring, and dampeners (antivibration mounts) for the automotive industry. The use of rubber in car tires (initially solid rather than pneumatic) in particular consumed
8050-544: The form of latex, an opaque, white, milky suspension of rubber particles in water. It is then transformed through industrial processes to the solid form widely seen in manufactured goods. Natural rubber is reactive and vulnerable to oxidization, but it can be stabilized through a heating process called vulcanization. Vulcanization is a process by which the rubber is heated and sulfur , peroxide , or bisphenol are added to improve resistance and elasticity and to prevent it from oxidizing. Carbon black , which can be derived from
8165-459: The higher-grade, technically specified block rubbers such as SVR 3L or SVR CV or used to produce Ribbed Smoke Sheet grades. Naturally coagulated rubber (cup lump) is used in the manufacture of TSR10 and TSR20 grade rubbers. Processing for these grades is a size reduction and cleaning process to remove contamination and prepare the material for the final stage of drying. The dried material is then baled and palletized for storage and shipment. Rubber
8280-431: The international market spot price of a seemingly more profitable crop (for example palm oil ) surges in relation to rubber. For instance, during the 2020 and 2021 international COVID-19 pandemic , demand for rubber gloves surged, leading to a spike in rubber prices of about 30%. In addition to the pandemic, demand exceeded supply in part because long term plantations had been torn out and replaced with other crops over
8395-535: The largest British industrial companies. J. B. Dunlop had dropped any ties to it well before his name was used for any part of the business. The business and manufactory was founded in Upper Stephen Street, Dublin . A plaque marks the site, which is now part of the head office of the Irish multinational departments store brand, Dunnes Stores. Dunlop Rubber failed to adapt to evolving market conditions in
8510-446: The largest football grounds in England that has staged many notable matches at club and international level. The park has also hosted other sports and events including international level rugby league and rugby union . This is one of the main attractions in this town. Much of Aston consists of terraced houses that were built around the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Some of these houses were demolished in
8625-544: The late 1960s to make way for the Aston Expressway , which links Birmingham city centre to the M6 motorway . In the late 1950s, Aston was the location of the famous 'Venus Baby' case of Cynthia Appleton (87 Fentham Road). By the early 1980s, Aston was suffering from severe deprivation with many of the terraced houses being outdated for the requirements of the time. Many of them lacked bathrooms and indoor toilets, whilst
8740-402: The latex would anyway have coagulated by the time it reached the factory, the smallholder will coagulate it by any means available, in any container available. Some smallholders use small containers, buckets etc., but often the latex is coagulated in holes in the ground, which are usually lined with plastic sheeting. Acidic materials and fermented fruit juices are used to coagulate the latex –
8855-434: The latex-carrying vessels of the tree become blocked. It is of higher purity and of greater value than the other three types. 'Cup lumps' can also be used to describe a completely different type of coagulate that has collected in smallholder plantations over a period of 1–2 weeks. After tapping all of the trees, the tapper will return to each tree and stir in some type of acid, which allows the newly harvested latex to mix with
8970-416: The latex. There is growing concern for the future supply of rubber due to various factors, including plant disease, climate change, and the volatile market price of rubber. Producers of natural rubber are mostly small family-held plantations, often serving large industrial aggregators. High volatility in the price of rubber affects rubber plantation investment, and farmers may remove their rubber trees if
9085-443: The liquid "field latex" at about midday. The four types of field coagula are "cuplump", "treelace", "smallholders' lump", and "earth scrap". Each has significantly different properties. Some trees continue to drip after the collection leading to a small amount of "cup lump" that is collected at the next tapping. The latex that coagulates on the cut is also collected as "tree lace". Tree lace and cup lump together account for 10%–20% of
9200-399: The material is finely divided by shredding prior to its immersion. An ammonia solution can be used to prevent the coagulation of raw latex. Rubber begins to melt at approximately 180 °C (356 °F). On a microscopic scale, relaxed rubber is a disorganized cluster of erratically changing wrinkled chains. In stretched rubber, the chains are almost linear. The restoring force is due to
9315-501: The north-west of Central Birmingham , Aston constitutes a ward within the metropolitan authority. It is approximately 1.5 miles (2.4 km) from Birmingham City Centre . Aston was first mentioned in the Domesday Book in 1086 as "Estone", having a mill, a priest and therefore probably a church, woodland and ploughland. The Church of Saints Peter and Paul was built in medieval times to replace an earlier church. The body of
9430-458: The organic compound isoprene , with minor impurities of other organic compounds. Thailand , Malaysia , Indonesia , and Cambodia are four of the leading rubber producers. Types of polyisoprene that are used as natural rubbers are classified as elastomers . Currently, rubber is harvested mainly in the form of the latex from the Pará rubber tree ( Hevea brasiliensis ) or others. The latex
9545-528: The original English company, now named Dunlop Holdings Ltd, incorporated in 1896. In 1998, BTR sold its share of the South African subsidiary, Dunlop Africa Ltd, which was itself divided in 2001. The industrial products division was sold to become Dunlop Industrial Products and Dunlop Rubber Mouldings. The tyre business, Dunlop Tyres International, was bought by Apollo Tyres of India in 2006. Apollo Tyres were never comfortable with, nor fully committed to
9660-577: The plantation expanded to Karnataka , Tamil Nadu and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India. Today, India is the world's 3rd largest producer and 4th largest consumer of rubber. In Singapore and Malaya, commercial production was heavily promoted by Sir Henry Nicholas Ridley , who served as the first Scientific Director of the Singapore Botanic Gardens from 1888 to 1911. He distributed rubber seeds to many planters and developed
9775-606: The preparation of dry rubber or transferred into air-tight containers with sieving for ammoniation. Ammoniation, invented by patent lawyer and vice-president of the United States Rubber Company Ernest Hopkinson around 1920, preserves the latex in a colloidal state for longer periods of time. Latex is generally processed into either latex concentrate for manufacture of dipped goods or coagulated under controlled, clean conditions using formic acid. The coagulated latex can then be processed into
9890-400: The preponderance of wrinkled conformations over more linear ones. For the quantitative treatment see ideal chain , for more examples see entropic force . Cooling below the glass transition temperature permits local conformational changes but a reordering is practically impossible because of the larger energy barrier for the concerted movement of longer chains. "Frozen" rubber's elasticity
10005-464: The previous 5–10 years, and other areas were affected by climate-fueled natural disasters. In this environment, producers did increase their prices in keeping with supply and demand dynamics, putting upward price pressure on the whole downstream supply chain. Aston#Aston Cross Aston is an area of inner Birmingham , in the county of the West Midlands , England. Located immediately to
10120-422: The previously coagulated material. The rubber/acid mixture is what gives rubber plantations, markets, and factories a strong odor. Tree lace is the coagulum strip that the tapper peels off the previous cut before making a new cut. It usually has higher copper and manganese contents than cup lump. Both copper and manganese are pro-oxidants and can damage the physical properties of the dry rubber. Smallholders' lump
10235-420: The rubber fig ( Ficus elastica ), Panama rubber tree ( Castilla elastica ), various spurges ( Euphorbia spp.), lettuce ( Lactuca species), the related Scorzonera tau-saghyz , various Taraxacum species, including common dandelion ( Taraxacum officinale ) and Kazakh dandelion, and, perhaps most importantly for its hypoallergenic properties, guayule ( Parthenium argentatum ). The term gum rubber
10350-580: The same quality as the natural rubber from rubber trees . In the wild types of dandelion, latex content is low and varies greatly. In Nazi Germany , research projects tried to use dandelions as a base for rubber production, but failed. In 2013, by inhibiting one key enzyme and using modern cultivation methods and optimization techniques, scientists in the Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME) in Germany developed
10465-454: The species is now pan-tropical. This species is preferred because it grows well under cultivation. A properly managed tree responds to wounding by producing more latex for several years. Congo rubber , formerly a major source of rubber, which motivated the atrocities in the Congo Free State , came from vines in the genus Landolphia ( L. kirkii , L. heudelotis , and L. owariensis ). Dandelion milk contains latex. The latex exhibits
10580-564: The synthetic rate decreases with complete removal. More than 28 million tons of rubber were produced in 2017, of which approximately 47% was natural. Since the bulk is synthetic, which is derived from petroleum, the price of natural rubber is determined, to a large extent, by the prevailing global price of crude oil. Asia was the main source of natural rubber, accounting for about 90% of output in 2021. The three largest producers, Thailand , Indonesia, and Malaysia, together account for around 72% of all natural rubber production. Natural rubber
10695-435: The terminal high-energy pyrophosphate. The reaction produces a cis polymer. The initiation step is catalyzed by prenyltransferase , which converts three monomers of isopentenyl pyrophosphate into farnesyl pyrophosphate . The farnesyl pyrophosphate can bind to rubber transferase to elongate a new rubber polymer. The required isopentenyl pyrophosphate is obtained from the mevalonate pathway, which derives from acetyl-CoA in
10810-442: The two dead girls), Nathan Martin and Michael Gregory were sentenced to life imprisonment with recommended minimum terms of 35 years on two charges of murder and three of attempted murder. A fourth man, Rodrigo Simms, received life with a recommended minimum of 27 years for the same crimes. A fifth defendant, Jermaine Carty, had walked free from court after being cleared of possessing a firearm. The four men convicted were members of
10925-597: The tyre company shareholders now owned three-quarters of Dunlop Rubber. The amalgamation was intended to bring about a substantial reduction in overhead and clarify what had been seen as a confusing relationship between the two enterprises when they shared most shareholders. Arthur du Cros was made managing director and deputy chairman in 1912 and retained that position after his father's death in 1918 when A L Ormrod became chairman through until 1921. For supply, Du Cros selected estates in Ceylon and Malaya for purchase, and by 1917
11040-578: The vast majority were suffering from decay as a result of a lack of maintenance. There was speculation that the homes would be demolished, but Birmingham City Council made money available to the homeowners for them to be brought up to modern standards. From 2001 to 2011, Aston underwent a £54 million Birmingham regeneration project named "Aston Pride", as part of the New Deal for Communities scheme in 2001. Many improvements were made, including reducing burglary, robbery and vehicle crime; spending £4 million on
11155-441: The ward. Birmingham City Council planned to permanently close Aston Library in 2017 to save money; however, the decision was reversed after public consultation, and it is now run by community organisations. Aston Cross was once the home of Ansells Brewery and HP Sauce . The six-acre Aston site was purchased by developer Chancerygate in 2007 at £800,000 per acre, but they subsequently sold it for half that price and it now houses
11270-453: The way of the growing crystallites . Crystallization has occurred, for example, when, after days, an inflated toy balloon is found withered at a relatively large remaining volume. Where it is touched, it shrinks because the temperature of the hand is enough to melt the crystals. Vulcanization of rubber creates di- and polysulfide bonds between chains, which limits the degrees of freedom and results in chains that tighten more quickly for
11385-442: The world. As the cost of natural rubber has risen significantly and rubber products are dense, the shipping methods offering the lowest cost per unit weight are preferred. Depending on destination, warehouse availability, and transportation conditions, some methods are preferred by certain buyers. In international trade, latex rubber is mostly shipped in 20-foot ocean containers. Inside the container, smaller containers are used to store
11500-417: Was a joint venture arrangement where each company took minority interests in the other's subsidiaries, rather than a takeover. The merger was not successful, and the joint venture was dissolved in 1981. Pirelli was not profitable throughout the entire duration of the merger. The decline of the British car manufacturing industry from 1972 onwards also impacted the core Dunlop business. Matters were compounded by
11615-468: Was a rubber solvent . Giovanni Fabbroni is credited with the discovery of naphtha as a rubber solvent in 1779. Charles Goodyear redeveloped vulcanization in 1839, although Mesoamericans had used stabilized rubber for balls and other objects as early as 1600 BC. South America remained the main source of latex rubber used during much of the 19th century. The rubber trade was heavily controlled by business interests but no laws expressly prohibited
11730-420: Was acquired by BTR plc for £100 million; BTR immediately sold the US tyre business to its management for £142 million. BTR began to divest itself of the Dunlop businesses from 1996 in order to transform itself from a conglomerate into a streamlined engineering company. In 1996, it sold Dunlop Slazenger to its management, backed by private equity group CINVen for £372 million; in 2004 they sold
11845-488: Was appointed as chairman. From 1924, Sir Eric Geddes began to diversify Dunlop. In 1924, the company began to manufacture tennis balls. In 1925, F. A. Davis was acquired, which had tennis racket manufacturing expertise. In 1926 the company acquired Charles Macintosh of Manchester for £2.5 million, and the Dunlop name was applied to footwear and clothing. Dunlop opened acquisition discussions with Slazenger in 1927, but without success. By 1928 only 72 per cent of turnover
11960-533: Was built over the Circuit De La Sarthe, home to the Le Mans 24-hour race. The years 1922 to 1937 firmly established Dunlop as a household name. By 1939, Dunlop was one of the largest British multinational companies. During the 1930s, Dunlop designed and licensed the production of joysticks and joystick components on British and other allied aircraft - most notably the joystick grip and head on
12075-760: Was first called 'india rubber,' because it came from the Indies, and the earliest European use of it was to rub out or erase. It is now called India rubber because it rubs out or erases the Indians." In India , commercial cultivation was introduced by British planters, although the experimental efforts to grow rubber on a commercial scale were initiated as early as 1873 at the Calcutta Botanical Garden . The first commercial Hevea plantations were established at Thattekadu in Kerala in 1902. In later years
12190-476: Was governed by a Local Board from 1869 and was created as an Urban District Council in 1903 before being absorbed in the expansion of the County Borough of Birmingham in 1911, and a further part, Saltley was added in 1911. In 1911 the civil parish had a population of 219,082. On 1 April 1912 the parish was abolished and merged with Birmingham. Old buildings which became popular within Aston included
12305-457: Was in tyres, compared to 90 per cent in 1920. An advertising campaign in 1928 heralded "the Dunlop way". In the late 1920s, Dunlop had manufacturing subsidiaries in the US, Canada, France, Germany, South Africa, Australia, India and Japan. By 1930, Dunlop secured an equal market share with its archrival Michelin in France. In 1929, Dunlopillo latex foam was patented. In 1933, the commercial production of Dunlopillo products began. In 1930, Dunlop
12420-529: Was later used by the Maya and Aztec cultures: in addition to making balls, Aztecs used rubber for other purposes, such as making containers and to make textiles waterproof by impregnating them with the latex sap. Charles Marie de La Condamine is credited with introducing samples of rubber to the Académie Royale des Sciences of France in 1736. In 1751, he presented a paper by François Fresneau to
12535-544: Was located on Upper Thomas Street. The brewery was a three-storey brick building with rounded corners, semi-circular windows and a slated roof. Other industry that was located in Aston include the Premier Motor Works which produced cars during the early 20th century. The works were situated at the junction of Aston Road and Dartmouth Street. On Miller Street was a tramcar depot which had a storage capacity of 104 tramcars. It opened in 1904 latterly being operated by
12650-602: Was made by William Bowden, a Dublin cycle agent. J. B. Dunlop, who could see no prosperous future in his discovery, had informally transferred his rights to Bowden. Initially J. B. Dunlop held a 20 per cent stake in the venture. The company's first headquarters was at Oriel House, Westland Row . The late 1880s was a period of great demand for John Kemp Starley 's new safety bicycles . Pneumatic Tyre began cycle tyre production in Belfast in late 1890, and quickly expanded to fill consumer demand. However, in 1890, J. B. Dunlop's patent
12765-520: Was manufactured between 1956 and 1962 or so by Dunlop Special Products Limited at Fort Dunlop in Birmingham and distributed by Dunlop Sports Company Limited at Allington House, 136–142 Victoria Street, London. A further factor in Dunlop's decline was the decision during the early 1960s to develop cheaper textile radial tyres rather than the more durable steel-belted radial tyres. Dunlop lost market share to manufacturers marketing steel-belted tyres, such as Michelin. Meanwhile, UK productivity and quality
12880-477: Was poor. Salesmen preferred products from the company's continental factories. In 1967, the company changed its name from the "Dunlop Rubber Company Ltd" to "Dunlop Ltd", as it had diversified from rubber. At this time, around 60 per cent of sales came from overseas, and tyres represented 60 per cent of company turnover. Sir Reay Geddes, the son of Sir Eric Geddes , became chairman of Dunlop in 1968. In 1968, Dunlop acquired George Angus Ltd of Newcastle upon Tyne,
12995-1070: Was relocated from Belfast and Dublin to Coventry , the centre of the British cycle industry. The Dublin Corporation had launched a case against Pneumatic Tyre, claiming nuisance from the smell of rubber and naphtha . Pneumatic Tyre soon spread developing interests in Birmingham . The following year a major interest was taken in their component supplier Byrne Bros India Rubber of Lichfield Road, Aston , Birmingham. The same year du Cros started Cycle Components Manufacturing in Selly Oak to supply inner tubes. J. B. Dunlop resigned in 1895, and sold most of his interest in Pneumatic Tyre. In 1896 Harvey Du Cros persuaded his board to sell Pneumatic Tyre to financier Ernest Terah Hooley for £3 million. Hooley drummed up support by offering financial journalists cheap shares and appointing aristocrats to
13110-474: Was the eighth largest public company in Britain by market value. The inter-war years saw considerable international expansion for Dunlop. The German subsidiary was reacquired after the First World War, and by 1929, Dunlop of Germany operated the second largest tyre factory in the country. Dunlop built manufacturing facilities in Ireland, South Africa and India during the 1930s. In 1932 the Dunlop bridge
13225-595: Was withdrawn. It had been discovered that Robert William Thomson had first patented the pneumatic tyre in 1845. J. B. Dunlop and Harvey du Cros together worked through the ensuing considerable difficulties. They employed inventor Charles Kingston Welch and also acquired other rights and patents which allowed them to protect their business's position to some extent. In the early 1890s, Pneumatic Tyre established divisions in Europe and North America, sending there four of du Cros's six sons. Factories were established overseas because foreign patents rights would only be maintained if
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