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57-673: There is a clear association of Ziggurats with mountain houses. Mountain houses play a certain role in Mesopotamian mythology and Assyro-Babylonian religion , associated with deities such as Anu , Enlil , Enki and Ninhursag . In the Hymn to Enlil , the Ekur is closely linked to Enlil whilst in Enlil and Ninlil it is the abode of the Annunaki , from where Enlil is banished. The fall of Ekur

114-598: A city spread, as well as a place for the people to worship. It was also a sacred structure. The biblical account of the Tower of Babel has been associated by modern scholars to the massive construction undertakings of the ziggurats of Mesopotamia , and in particular to the ziggurat of Etemenanki in Babylon in light of the Tower of Babel Stele describing its restoration by Nebuchadnezzar II . According to some historians

171-428: A fearsome gate, architrave , a buttressed structure called a "dubla" and a magnificent vault , all described with terrifying metaphors . The hymn also references a "house of life" where sinners are rehabilitated and returned to their gods through the compassion of Nungal, who holds the "tablet of life". The destruction and fall of these various structures is remembered in various City Laments , destroyed either in

228-608: A great storm , flood or by variously Elamites , Subarians , Gutians and some other, as yet unidentified "Su-people" . It was also recorded that the terrible acts of final destruction of the Ekur and its divine laws was committed by Sargon the Great against his own people in approximately 2300 BC. The Curse of Agade describes the same thing happening at the hands of Naram-Sin "Enlil, because his beloved Ekur had been attacked, what destruction he wrought". The foundations are broken with large axes and its watercourses are disabled,

285-552: A landowner can alter the drainage from their parcel. Drainage options for the construction industry include: The surface opening of channel drainage usually comes in the form of gratings (polymer, plastic, steel or iron) or a single slot (slot drain) that run along the ground surface (typically manufactured from steel or iron). Earth retaining structures such as retaining walls also need to have groundwater drainage considered during their construction. Typical retaining walls are constructed of impermeable material, which can block

342-398: A multi-story "giguna" are mentioned, among others which have proved unintelligible, even to modern scholars. The Ekur was noted for inspiring fear, dread, terror and panic in people, especially amongst the evil and ignorant . Kramer suggested the Ekur complex may have included a primordial dungeon of the netherworld or "house of lament" where the damned were sent after judgement. Nungal

399-515: A number of administrative tablets found under the Ur Gur platform or pavement level. These were found by an expedition from the University of Pennsylvania between 1889 and 1900, led by John Punnett Peters , John Henry Haynes , and Hermann Volrath Hilprecht . The tablets detail records of the building work and furnishings of the temple under Naram-Sin and Shar-Kali-Sharri. These tablets describe

456-727: A number of votive statues plated with gold. Around twenty nine kilograms of gold was used making one hundred moon crescents and one hundred sun discs used in the decorations. Two hundred kilograms of silver were used in the construction of a single shrine . No records of any personal adornments or jewellery were ever found in the Ekur. A total of seventy seven joiners were used in teams of eleven under seven foremen and fifty four carpenters under three foremen. Eighty six goldsmiths were employed under six foremen along with ten sculptors. The vast amounts of bronze suggested there were as many as two hundred smiths under fifteen foremen and an unknown number of engravers under three foremen. The Ekur archive

513-412: A pilot program called Street Edge Alternatives Project. The project focuses on designing a system "to provide drainage that more closely mimics the natural landscape prior to development than traditional piped systems". The streets are characterized by ditches along the side of the roadway, with plantings designed throughout the area. An emphasis on non-curbed sidewalks allows water to flow more freely into

570-431: A sanctuary of Ishtar , e-kur-nam-ti-la ; "House, Mountain of Life", e-kur-ni-zu ; "House, Fearsome Mountain" - the sanctuary of Ninlil at hursag -kala-ma (likely a later name of e-hursag-kalam-ma), etc. The Ekur was seen as a place of judgement and the place from which Enlil's divine laws are issued. The ethics and moral values of the site are extolled in myths, which Samuel Noah Kramer suggested would have made it

627-460: A settlement of demons. The location also appears in Ludlul bēl nēmeqi and other myths as a home of demons who go out into the land. It is noted by Wayne Horowitz that in none of the bilingual texts do the demons appear to be "going upwards" but "outwards", contrary to what would be expected if Ekur referred to later concepts such as Sheol , Hades and Hell , which were believed to be located under

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684-525: Is a testament to the power and wealth of the Akkadian Empire with artisans coming from around the land to participate under the direction of the master craftsman and 'Minister of Public Works' of the King. Manufacture was suggested to have taken place both in the temple and special workshop (Nippur cubit measuring rod pictured). The splendour of the designs and decorations led Age Westenholz to suggest

741-580: Is a type of massive structure built in ancient Mesopotamia . It has the form of a terraced compound of successively receding stories or levels. Notable ziggurats include the Great Ziggurat of Ur near Nasiriyah , the Ziggurat of Aqar Quf near Baghdad , the no longer extant Etemenanki in Babylon , Chogha Zanbil in Khūzestān and Sialk . The Sumerians believed that the gods lived in the temple at

798-614: Is also mentioned in the Inscription of Gaddas as a temple of Enlil built "outside Babylon", possibly referring to the Enamtila in west Babylon. It is used as part of such Sumerian phrases as e-kur-igi-gal ; "House, Mountain Endowed with Sight", e-kur-igi-bar-ra ; "House, Mountain which Sees", e-kur-mah ; "House, Exalted Mountain", e-kur-mah ; a temple of Ninazu , e-kur-me-sikil ; "House, Mountain of Pure Mes (laws or judgement)" -

855-674: Is described in the Lament for Ur . In mythology , the Ekur was the centre of the earth and location where heaven and earth were united. It is also known as Duranki and one of its structures is known as the Kiur ("great place"). Enamtila has also been suggested by Piotr Michalowski to be a part of the Ekur. A hymn to Nanna illustrates the close relationship between temples, houses and mountains. "In your house on high , in your beloved house , I will come to live, O Nanna, up above in your cedar perfumed mountain ". The Tummal Inscription records

912-516: Is the Sumerian goddess who was given the title "Queen of the Ekur". The hymn Nungal in the Ekur describes the dark side of the complex with a house that "examines closely both the righteous and the wicked and does not allow the wicked to escape". This house is described as having a "River of ordeal" which leads to the "mouth of catastrophe" through a lock and bolt. Further descriptions of its structural components are given including foundations, doors,

969-475: Is the oldest known ziggurat, dating to the early 3rd millennium BCE. Ziggurat designs ranged from simple bases upon which a temple sat, to marvels of mathematics and construction which spanned several terraced stories and were topped with a temple. An example of a simple ziggurat is the White Temple of Uruk , in ancient Sumer . The ziggurat itself is the base on which the White Temple is set. Its purpose

1026-599: Is then folded over the top of the stone and the trench is then covered by soil. Groundwater seeps through the geotextile and flows through the stone to an outfell. In high groundwater conditions a perforated plastic ( PVC or PE ) pipe is laid along the base of the drain to increase the volume of water transported in the drain. Alternatively, a prefabricated plastic drainage system made of HDPE , often incorporating geotextile, coco fiber or rag filters can be considered. The use of these materials has become increasingly more common due to their ease of use, since they eliminate

1083-470: Is to get the temple closer to the heavens, and provide access from the ground to it via steps. The Mesopotamians believed that these pyramid temples connected heaven and earth. In fact, the ziggurat at Babylon was known as Etemenanki , which means "House of the foundation of heaven and earth" in Sumerian . The date of its original construction is unknown, with suggested dates ranging from the fourteenth to

1140-401: Is usually assumed that the ziggurats supported a shrine, though the only evidence for this comes from Herodotus , and physical evidence is non-existent ... The likelihood of such a shrine ever being found is remote. Erosion has usually reduced the surviving ziggurats to a fraction of their original height, but textual evidence may yet provide more facts about the purpose of these shrines. In

1197-531: The Netherlands . The area between Amsterdam , Haarlem and Leiden was, in prehistoric times, swampland and small lakes. Turf cutting ( peat mining ), subsidence and shoreline erosion gradually caused the formation of one large lake, the Haarlemmermeer , or lake of Haarlem. The invention of wind-powered pumping engines in the 15th century permitted some of the marginal land drainage. Still,

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1254-596: The SIS Building in London. Drainage Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of a surface's water and sub-surface water from an area with excess water. The internal drainage of most agricultural soils can prevent severe waterlogging (anaerobic conditions that harm root growth), but many soils need artificial drainage to improve production or to manage water supplies. The Indus Valley Civilization had sewerage and drainage systems. All houses in

1311-491: The Ur III period. Restorations of the Ekur were later carried out by Ur-Nammu around 2050 BC and Ishme-Dagan around 1950 BC, who made it fragrant again with incense "like a fragrant cedar forest" . Evidence was also found of further building work under the reign of Agum Kakrime . Another restoration at Nippur was carried out by Assyrian and Babylonian king Esarhaddon between 681 and 669 BC. A hymn to Urninurta mentions

1368-406: The flatwoods citrus -growing region of Florida , United States. After periods of high rainfall, drainage pumps are employed to prevent damage to the citrus groves from overly wet soils. Rice production requires complete water control, as fields must be flooded or drained at different stages of the crop cycle. The Netherlands has also led the way in this type of drainage by draining lowlands along

1425-460: The gods , and each city had its own patron god. Only priests were permitted on the ziggurat or in the rooms at its base, and it was their responsibility to care for the gods and attend to their needs. The priests were very powerful members of Sumerian and Assyro-Babylonian society. One of the best-preserved ziggurats is Chogha Zanbil in western Iran . The Sialk ziggurat, in Kashan , Iran ,

1482-476: The "gate of peace " is demolished and wars start all over the land, statues are burnt and wealth carried off. There is a body of evidence showing that Naram-Sin instead rebuilt the Ekur, likely in a single building project that continued into the reign of his son Shar-Kali-Sharri , suggesting it was destroyed during Gutian raids. It was noted that statues of the Sargonic kings were still honoured there during

1539-773: The 1970s. The Al Zaqura Building is a government building situated in Baghdad . It serves the office of the prime minister of Iraq . The Babylon Hotel in Baghdad also is inspired by the ziggurat. The Chet Holifield Federal Building is colloquially known as "the Ziggurat" due to its form. It is a United States government building in Laguna Niguel , California , built between 1968 and 1971. Further examples include The Ziggurat in West Sacramento , California, and

1596-558: The 21st century BC during the Third Dynasty of Ur . Ziggurats were built by ancient Sumerians , Akkadians , Elamites , Eblaites and Babylonians for local religions. Each ziggurat was part of a temple complex with other buildings. Before the ziggurats there were raised platforms that date from the Ubaid period during the sixth millennium BCE. The ziggurats began as platforms (usually oval, rectangular or square). The ziggurat

1653-635: The analogy of this spiritual sanctuary to the Sumerian empire with that of the Vatican to the Roman Catholic world. The chief administrator of the Ekur or "sanga" of Enlil was appointed by the king and held special status in Nippur and votive inscriptions of the kings indicate that it had held this position since early dynastic times. Peter Jensen also associated the Ekur with the underworld in "Die Kosmologie der Babylonier", where he translated it as

1710-412: The areas of permeable surface on the side of the streets. Because of the plantings, the run off water from the urban area does not all directly go into the ground, but can also be absorbed into the surrounding environment. Monitoring conducted by Seattle Public Utilities reports a 99 percent reduction of storm water leaving the drainage project. Drainage has undergone a large-scale environmental review in

1767-428: The construction process, they set out all the necessary levels for roads , street gutters , drainage, culverts and sewers involved in construction operations. Civil engineers and construction managers work alongside architects and supervisors, planners, quantity surveyors , and the general workforce, as well as subcontractors. Typically, most jurisdictions have some body of drainage law to govern to what degree

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1824-570: The design of Egyptian pyramids , especially the stepped designs of the oldest pyramids ( Pyramid of Zoser at Saqqara , 2600 BCE), may have been an evolution from the ziggurats built in Mesopotamia. Others say the Pyramid of Zoser and the earliest Egyptian pyramids may have been derived locally from the bench-shaped mastaba tomb. The shape of the ziggurat experienced a revival in modern architecture and Brutalist architecture starting in

1881-406: The drain. Geotextiles are synthetic textile fabrics specially manufactured for civil and environmental engineering applications. Geotextiles are designed to retain fine soil particles while allowing water to pass through. In a typical drainage system, they would be laid along a trench which would then be filled with coarse granular material : gravel , sea shells , stone or rock . The geotextile

1938-402: The drainage system. Drainage in planters refers to the implementation of effective drainage systems specifically designed for plant containers or pots. Proper drainage is crucial in planters to prevent waterlogging and promote healthy plant growth. Planter Drainage involves the incorporation of drainage holes, drainage layers, or specialized drainage systems to ensure excess water can escape from

1995-399: The final drainage of the lake had to await the design of large steam-powered pumps and agreements between regional authorities. The lake was eliminated between 1849 and 1852, creating thousands of km of new land. Coastal plains and river deltas may have seasonally or permanently high water tables and must have drainage improvements if they are to be used for agriculture. An example is

2052-420: The first king to build a temple to Enlil as Enmebaragesi , the predecessor of Gilgamesh , around 2500 BC. Ekur is generally associated with the temple at Nippur restored by Naram-Sin of Akkad and Shar-Kali-Sharri during the Akkadian Empire . It is also the later name of the temple of Assur rebuilt by Shalmaneser I . The word can also refer to the chapel of Enlil in the temple of Ninimma at Nippur. It

2109-783: The gods were born. Before the later speculative view was developed, according to which the gods, or most of them, have their seats in heaven, it was on this mountain also that the gods were supposed to dwell. Hence Ekur became also one of the names for temple, as the seat of a god." In Chapter 18 of the Right Ginza , the Ekur is referred to in Mandaic as ekura ( Classical Mandaic : ࡏࡊࡅࡓࡀ ). Ziggurat A ziggurat ( / ˈ z ɪ ɡ ʊ ˌ r æ t / ; Cuneiform : 𒅆𒂍𒉪, Akkadian : ziqqurratum , D-stem of zaqārum 'to protrude, to build high', cognate with other Semitic languages like Hebrew zaqar (זָקַר) 'protrude' )

2166-482: The house of his vizier Nuska and mistress Suzianna . Descriptions of these locations show the physical structures about the Ekur, these included an assembly hall, hut for ploughs , a lofty stairway up a foothill from a "house of darkness" considered by some to be a prison or chasm . It also contained various gates such as the gate "where no grain was cut", the "lofty gate", "gate of peace" and "gate of judgement", it also had drainage channels. Other locations such as

2223-420: The major cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had access to water and drainage facilities. Waste water was directed to covered gravity sewers , which lined the major streets. The invention of hollow-pipe drainage is credited to Sir Hugh Dalrymple, who died in 1753. New storm water drainage systems incorporate geotextile filters that retain and prevent fine grains of soil from passing into and clogging

2280-418: The most ethically-oriented in the entire ancient Near East . Its rituals are also described as: "banquets and feasts are celebrated from sunrise to sunset" with "festivals, overflowing with milk and cream, are alluring of plan and full of rejoicing". The priests of the Ekur festivities are described with en being the high priest, lagar as his associate, mues the leader of incantations and prayers, and guda

2337-414: The need for further pipework systems to be installed in parallel to the drainage, reducing the environmental impact of production as well as improving water collection. Stainless steel , concrete channel, PVC and HDPE are all materials available for slot drainage which have become industry standards on construction projects. The civil engineer is responsible for drainage in construction projects. During

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2394-461: The need for transporting and laying stone drainage aggregate, which is invariably more expensive than a synthetic drain and concrete liners. Over the past 30 years, geotextile, PVC filters, and HDPE filters have become the most commonly used soil filter media. They are cheap to produce and easy to lay, with factory controlled properties that ensure long term filtration performance even in fine silty soil conditions. Seattle's Public Utilities created

2451-408: The ninth century BC, with textual evidence suggesting it existed in the second millennium. Unfortunately, not much of even the base is left of this massive structure, yet archeological findings and historical accounts put this tower at seven multicolored tiers, topped with a temple of exquisite proportions. The temple is thought to have been painted and maintained an indigo color, matching the tops of

2508-564: The path of groundwater. When groundwater flow is obstructed, hydrostatic water pressure buildups against the wall and may cause significant damage. If the water pressure is not drained appropriately, retaining walls can bow, move, and fracture, causing seams to separate. The water pressure can also erode soil particles, leading to voids behind the wall and sinkholes in the above soil. Traditional retaining wall drainage systems can include French drains , drain pipes or weep holes . To prevent soil erosion, geotextile filter fabrics are installed with

2565-762: The planter. This helps to prevent root rot , water accumulation, and other issues that can negatively impact plant health. By providing adequate drainage in planters, it supports optimal plant growth and contributes to the overall success of gardening or landscaping projects. Drainage options for the planter include: Wetland soils may need drainage to be used for agriculture . In the northern United States and Europe, glaciation created numerous small lakes , which gradually filled with humus to make marshes . Some of these were drained using open ditches and trenches to make mucklands , which are primarily used for high-value crops such as vegetables . The world's largest project of this type has been in process for centuries in

2622-482: The present state of our knowledge it seems reasonable to adopt as a working hypothesis the suggestion that the ziggurats developed out of the earlier temples on platforms and that small shrines stood on the highest stages ... Access to the shrine would have been by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit. The Mesopotamian ziggurats were not places for public worship or ceremonies. They were believed to be dwelling places for

2679-498: The priest responsible for decoration. Sacrifices and food offerings were brought by the king , described as "faithful shepherd" or "noble farmer". The physical structure of the Ekur included shrines and storehouses where foreigners brought offerings. These included the shrines of Enlil's wife Ninlil (her chamber, the Gagisua is described as the place where they lived happily together) and their sons, Nanna and Ninurta along with

2736-461: The prominence of a tree in the courtyard of the Ekur, reminiscent of the tree of life in the Garden of Eden : "O, chosen cedar , adornment of the yard of Ekur, Urinurta, for thy shadow the country may feel awe!". This is suggested by G. Windgren to reflect the concept of the tree as a mythical and ritual symbol of both king and god. The Ekur reconstruction project was documented in the Ekur archive;

2793-540: The recent past in the United Kingdom. Sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS) are designed to encourage contractors to install drainage system that more closely mimic the natural flow of water in nature. Since 2010 local and neighbourhood planning in the UK is required by law to factor SUDS into any development projects that they are responsible for. Slot drainage is a channel drainage system designed to eliminate

2850-410: The roots eliminates air movement through the soil. Other soils may have an impervious layer of mineralized soil, called a hardpan , or relatively impervious rock layers may underlie shallow soils. Drainage is especially important in tree fruit production. Soils that are otherwise excellent may be waterlogged for a week of the year, which is sufficient to kill fruit trees and cost the productivity of

2907-404: The shore and pushing back the sea until the original nation has been greatly enlarged. In moist climates, soils may be adequate for cropping with the exception that they become waterlogged for brief periods each year, from snow melt or from heavy rains . Soils that are predominantly clay will pass water very slowly downward. Meanwhile, plant roots suffocate because the excessive water around

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2964-486: The shrine was accessible only by way of three stairways, a small number of guards could prevent non-priests from spying on the rituals at the shrine on top of the ziggurat, such as initiation rituals like the Eleusinian mysteries , cooking of sacrificial food and burning of sacrificial animals. Each ziggurat was part of a temple complex that included a courtyard, storage rooms, bathrooms, and living quarters, around which

3021-418: The surface of the earth. Morris Jastrow discussed the place of the Ekur in Sumerian cosmology , "Another name which specifies the relationship of Aralu to the world is Ekur or 'mountain house' of the dead. Ekur is one of the names for the earth, but is applied more particularly to that part of the mountain, also known as E -khar-sag-kurkura (É.ḪAR.SAG. KUR .KUR-'a' "house of the mountain of all lands") where

3078-494: The tiers. It is known that there were three staircases leading to the temple, two of which (side flanked) were thought to have only ascended half the ziggurat's height. According to Herodotus , at the top of each ziggurat was a shrine, although none of these shrines has survived. Functionally, ziggurats offered a high place on which priests could escape rising water that annually inundated lowlands and occasionally flooded for hundreds of kilometres. They also offered security; since

3135-504: The top of the ziggurats, so only priests and other highly-respected individuals could enter. Sumerian society offered these individuals such gifts as music, harvested produce, and the creation of devotional statues to entice them to live in the temple. The word ziggurat comes from ziqqurratum (height, pinnacle), in ancient Assyrian. From zaqārum , to be high up. The Ziggurat of Ur is a Neo-Sumerian ziggurat built by King Ur-Nammu , who dedicated it in honor of Nanna/Sîn in approximately

3192-684: The walls featuring statues of four gold bison . The courtyard was paved with a pattern of red and yellow bricks. The main entrance to the Ekur was adorned with two copper lahmu -figures with golden faces. These obscure figures held emblem -poles on either side. Two figures of large, winged, copper dragons guarded the gateway, their roaring mouths inlaid with gold. The doors were studded with copper and gold with heavy bolts resembling either dragons or water buffalo . The interior likely featured an exquisite, carved wooden decorations, panelling and furniture. Inner shrines had doors, which were also built with golden faced lahmu -figures either side along with

3249-465: Was a mastaba -like structure with a flat top. The sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside. Each step was slightly smaller than the step below it. The facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had astrological significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks. The number of floors ranged from two to seven. According to archaeologist Harriet Crawford , It

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