The EPA Network is the European Network of the Heads of Environment Protection Agencies.
103-500: The EPA Network is an informal grouping of the Heads and Directors of European Environmental Protection Agencies and similar bodies across Europe. The Network is a forum for the exchange of views and experiences on issues of common interest to organisations involved in the practical day-to-day implementation of environmental policy. The EPA Network was established in 2003 and consists at present of 39 organisations. The Network meets twice
206-530: A climate response rather: The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report states: "Some responses, such as migration, relocation and resettlement may or may not be considered to be adaptation". Paris Agreement The Paris Agreement (also called the Paris Accords or Paris Climate Accords ) is an international treaty on climate change that was signed in 2016. The treaty covers climate change mitigation , adaptation , and finance . The Paris Agreement
309-623: A "ratcheting up" of ambition in emissions cuts. Because analysts agreed in 2014 that the NDCs would not limit rising temperatures below 2 °C, the global stocktake reconvenes parties to assess how their new NDCs must evolve so that they continually reflect a country's "highest possible ambition". While ratcheting up the ambition of NDCs is a major aim of the global stocktake, it assesses efforts beyond mitigation. The five-year reviews will also evaluate adaptation, climate finance provisions, and technology development and transfer. On November 30, 2023,
412-626: A bottom-up structure, as its core pledge and review mechanism allows nations to set their own nationally determined contributions (NDCs), rather than having targets imposed top down. Unlike its predecessor, the Kyoto Protocol, which sets commitment targets that have legal force, the Paris Agreement, with its emphasis on consensus building , allows for voluntary and nationally determined targets. The specific climate goals are thus politically encouraged, rather than legally bound. Only
515-541: A country to set specific emissions targets , but each target should go beyond previous targets. In contrast to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol , the distinction between developed and developing countries is blurred, so that the latter also have to submit plans for emission reductions. The Paris Agreement was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) at a ceremony inside the UN Headquarters in New York . After
618-483: A country wants to use more cost-effective cooperative approaches to achieve their NDCs, they will have to monitor carbon units for their economies. So far, as the only country who wants to buy ITMOs, Switzerland has signed deals regarding ITMO tradings with Peru, Ghana, Senegal, Georgia, Dominica, Vanuatu, Thailand and Ukraine. Paragraphs 6.4 –6.7 establish a mechanism "to contribute to the mitigation of greenhouse gases and support sustainable development". Though there
721-433: A disaster: it's only when it affects people or is caused by them that is counts as a disaster. It is argued that natural disasters are always linked to human action or inaction or rooted in anthropogenic processes . Disasters, economic loss, and the underlying vulnerabilities that drive risk are increasing. Global risks like climate change are having major impacts everywhere. Scientists forecast climate change will increase
824-654: A forum for the heads of these agencies to exchange vies and share experiences at a strategic level. Climate change adaptation Climate change adaptation is the process of adjusting to the effects of climate change . These can be both current or expected impacts. Adaptation aims to moderate or avoid harm for people, and is usually done alongside climate change mitigation . It also aims to exploit opportunities. Humans may also intervene to help adjust for natural systems. There are many adaptation strategies or options. For instance, building hospitals that can withstand natural disasters, roads that don't get washed away in
927-509: A gain of emission units for one party and a reduction of emission units for the other, a so called "corresponding adjustment". Because the NDCs, and domestic carbon trading schemes, are heterogeneous, the ITMOs will provide a format for global linkage under the auspices of the UNFCCC. The provision thus also creates a pressure for countries to adopt emissions management systems – if
1030-896: A higher share of plant-based foods . This has both mitigation and adaptation benefits. Plant-based options have much lower energy and water requirements. Adaptation options can investigate the dietary patterns that are better suited to the regional, socioeconomic and cultural context. Social-cultural norms strongly affect preferences for foods. Policies such as subsidies, taxes, and marketing can also support dietary choices that help adaptation. Agriculture offers many opportunities for adaptation. These include changing planting times, or changing to crops and livestock that are better adapted to climate conditions and presence of pests. Other examples are breeding more resilient crops and selecting genetically modified crops. All these aim to improve food security and nutrition. Migration counts as behavioural climate adaptation for some, although others refer to it as
1133-564: A knowledge loop that includes targeted user communities' access to, interpretation of, communication of, and use of pertinent, accurate, and trustworthy climate information, as well as their feedback on that use. Climate information services involve the timely production, translation and delivery of useful climate data, information and knowledge. Institutional responses include zoning regulations, new building codes , new insurance schemes, and coordination mechanisms. Policies are important tools to integrate issues of climate change adaptation. At
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#17327651723521236-516: A long-term temperature goal which is to keep the rise in global surface temperature to well below 2 °C (3.6 °F) above pre-industrial levels. The treaty also states that preferably the limit of the increase should only be 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). The lower the temperature increase, the smaller the effects of climate change can be expected. To achieve this temperature goal, greenhouse gas emissions should be reduced as soon as, and by as much as, possible. They should even reach net zero by
1339-593: A mandate to be informed by the Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC and the work of the subsidiary bodies of the UNFCCC. The resulting agreement was to be adopted in 2015. Negotiations in Paris took place over a two-week span, and continued throughout the three final nights. Various drafts and proposals had been debated and streamlined in the preceding year. According to one commentator two ways in which
1442-553: A report released in 2022 the IPCC promotes the need for innovation and technological changes in combination with consumption and production behavioral changes to meet Paris Agreement objectives. To stay below 1.5 °C of global warming, emissions need to be cut by roughly 50% by 2030. This is an aggregate of each country's nationally determined contributions . By mid-century, CO 2 emissions would need to be cut to zero, and total greenhouse gases would need to be net zero just after mid-century. There are barriers to implementing
1545-467: A specific date, nor to meet their targets. There will be only a name and shame system or as János Pásztor , the former U.N. assistant secretary-general on climate change, stated, a "name and encourage" plan. Under the Paris Agreement, countries must increase their ambition every five years. To facilitate this, the agreement established the Global Stocktake , which assesses progress, with
1648-469: A specific division between developed and developing nations. Countries determine themselves what contributions they should make to achieve the aims of the treaty. As such, these plans are called nationally determined contributions (NDCs). Article 3 requires NDCs to be "ambitious efforts" towards "achieving the purpose of this Agreement" and to "represent a progression over time". The contributions should be set every five years and are to be registered by
1751-476: A surprise. Air and water pollution, acid precipitation, climate change and many other environmental problems tend to ignore national borders. Typically, they present a threat that can affect more than one country. If we want to tackle these problems successfully, it makes more sense to address them at regional, and even in some cases global, level. It is usually the task of Environmental Protection Agencies within individual countries, with around five exceptions where
1854-509: A year for the coming decades. In many cases, the cost will be less than the damage that it avoids. The IPCC defines climate change adaptation in this way: Adaptation actions can be incremental and transformative. Incremental actions are actions that aim to maintain the essence and integrity of a system. Transformative actions are actions that change the fundamental attributes of a system in response to climate change and its impacts. Research on climate change adaptation has been ongoing since
1957-487: A year in plenary and has established a number of interest groups dealing with issues of interest to member agencies. The issues dealt with by the interest groups cover topics from better regulation to climate change adaptation . The Network has issued a number of statements on environmental policy and implementation. The secretariat is at present hosted by the European Environment Agency which
2060-624: Is a binding agreement, but many of its articles do not imply obligations or are there to facilitate international collaboration. It covers most greenhouse gas emissions, but does not apply to international aviation and shipping , which fall under the responsibility of the International Civil Aviation Organization and the International Maritime Organization , respectively. The Paris Agreement has been described as having
2163-430: Is a closely related area of work and research topic that has recently emerged. It describes situations in which adaptation, mitigation and development solutions are pursued together. It is able to benefit from synergies from among the actions and reduce trade-offs. Strategies to limit climate change are complementary to efforts to adapt to it. Limiting warming, by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and removing them from
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#17327651723522266-882: Is also a member of the EPA Network and is located in Copenhagen The EPA Network cooperates on common issues with the network of European Nature Protection Agencies ENCA, as well as with other networks, such as, IMPEL Few realize that some 70–80% of environmental legislation in the member states of the European Union and member states of the European Economic Area is actually decided and agreed at EU level., The laws developed and adopted at EU level either apply directly or are transposed into national legislation after decision by national parliaments. . This should, though, not come as
2369-421: Is an important step in understanding current and future adaptation needs and options. As of 2022, the level of warming is 1.2 °C (34.2 °F) above levels before the industrial revolution. It is on track to increase to 2.5 to 2.9 °C (36.5 to 37.2 °F) by the end of the century. This is causing a variety of secondary effects. Many negative effects of climate change involve changes in extremes or
2472-547: Is because evacuation and emergency access becomes easier. Reduced air pollution from public transport improves health. This in turn may lead to improved economic resilience, as healthy workers perform better. There are many adaptation responses. We sometimes call them adaptation measures, strategies or solutions. They help manage impacts and risks to people and nature. Current adaptation focuses on near-term climate risks. It also focuses on particular sectors, such as water and agriculture, and on regions, such as Africa and Asia. It
2575-638: Is because transformational adaptation is connected with implementation at scale and ideally at the system-level. Strengthening resilience is therefore important for maintaining a capacity for transformation. Transformations, and the processes of transition, cover the major systems and sectors at scale. These are energy, land and ecosystems, urban and infrastructure, and industrial and societal. Transformations may fail if they do not integrate social justice, consider power differences and political inclusion, and if they do not deliver improvements in incomes and wellbeing for everyone. Climate resilient development
2678-522: Is implemented via national policy. It would involve improvements to energy efficiency to decrease the energy intensity of the global economy. Implementation also requires fossil fuel burning to be cut back and the share of sustainable energy to grow rapidly. Emissions are being reduced rapidly in the electricity sector, but not in the building, transport and heating sector. Some industries are difficult to decarbonize, and for those carbon dioxide removal may be necessary to achieve net zero emissions . In
2781-468: Is important to close gaps between adaptation that is carried out and the needs relative to today's climate in order to reduce risks to a tolerable level. However, future adaptation must also anticipate future climate change risks. Some options may become less effective or entirely unfeasible as global warming increases. Adaptation responses fall into four categories that all directly aim to reduce risks and exploit opportunities: We can also group options
2884-490: Is important to help countries manage climate risks. Plans, policies or strategies are in place in more than 70% of countries. Agreements like the Paris Agreement encourage countries to develop adaptation plans. Other levels of government like cities and provinces also use adaptation planning. So do economic sectors. Donor countries can give money to developing countries to help develop national adaptation plans. This
2987-458: Is important to help them implement more adaptation. Monitoring and evaluation activities are key parts of adaptation efforts. They ensure strategies work well and allow for necessary changes along the way. The adaptation carried out so far is not enough to manage risks at current levels of climate change. And adaptation must also anticipate future risks of climate change. The costs of climate change adaptation are likely to cost billions of dollars
3090-799: Is in three categories: 1. Structural and physical adaptation (including engineering and built environment, technological, ecosystem-based, services); 2. Social adaptation (educational, informational, behavioural); 3. Institutional adaptation (economic organizations, laws and regulation, government policies and programmes). Other ways to distinguish types of adaptation are anticipatory versus reactive, autonomous versus planned and incremental versus transformational. Built environment options include installing or upgrading infrastructure to protect against flooding, sea level rise, heatwaves and extreme heat. They also include infrastructure to respond to changed rainfall patterns in agriculture. This could be infrastructure for irrigation. These are explained further in
3193-744: Is no official name for the mechanism as yet, it has been referred to as the Sustainable Development Mechanism or SDM. The SDM is considered to be the successor to the Clean Development Mechanism , a mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol by which parties could collaboratively pursue emissions reductions. The SDM is set to largely resemble the Clean Development Mechanism, with the dual goal of contributing to global GHG emissions reductions and supporting sustainable development. Though
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3296-443: Is not possible to directly reduce hazards. This is because hazards are affected by current and future changes in climate. Instead, adaptation addresses the risks of climate impacts that arise from the way climate-related hazards interact with the exposure and vulnerability of human and ecological systems. Exposure refers to the presence of people, livelihoods, ecosystems and other assets in places that could suffer negative effects. It
3399-470: Is one way to reduce vulnerability to climate hazards. For instance, mangroves can dampen storm energy. So they can help prevent flooding. In this way, protection of the mangrove ecosystem can be a form of adaptation. Insurance and livelihood diversification increase resilience and decrease vulnerability. Other ways to decrease vulnerability include strengthening social protection and building infrastructure more resistant to hazards. Adaptive capacity in
3502-412: Is part of the broader consideration of sustainable development . Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction have similar goals (to reduce potential impacts of hazards and increase the resilience of people at risk). They use similar concepts and are informed by similar sources and studies. Disasters are often triggered by natural hazards. A natural event such as a fire or flood is not of itself
3605-515: Is possible that the SDM will see difficulties. Climate change adaptation received more focus in Paris negotiations than in previous climate treaties. Collective, long-term adaptation goals are included in the agreement, and countries must report on their adaptation actions, making it a parallel component with mitigation. The adaptation goals focus on enhancing adaptive capacity , increasing resilience , and limiting vulnerability. The Paris Agreement
3708-447: Is possible to reduce exposure by retreating from areas with high climate risks, such as floodplains. Improving systems for early warnings and evacuations are other ways to reduce exposure. The IPCC defines climate change vulnerability as "the propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected" by climate change. It can apply to humans but also to natural systems . Human and ecosystem vulnerability are interdependent. According to
3811-504: Is strong variation within countries. The determinants of adaptive capacity include: The IPCC considers climate resilience to be “the capacity of social, economic and ecosystems to cope with a hazardous event or trend or disturbance”. It includes the abilities to reorganise and learn. This definition is similar to that of climate change adaptation. However, resilience involves a more systematic approach to absorbing change. It involves using those changes to become more efficient. The idea
3914-423: Is that people can intervene to reorganise the system when disturbance creates an opportunity to do so. Implemented adaptation most often builds upon resilience as a way of bouncing back to recover after a disturbance. Experts consider it to be incremental rather than transformational. On the other hand, climate resilience-focused projects can be activities to promote and support transformational adaptation. This
4017-489: The European Union ratified the agreement, sufficient countries had ratified the agreement responsible for enough of the world's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force on 4 November 2016. World leaders have lauded the agreement. However, some environmentalists and analysts have criticized it, saying it is not strict enough. There is debate about the effectiveness of the agreement. While pledges under
4120-685: The Nationally Determined Contributions , and may bring down temperatures by a further 0.5°C. With initial pledges by countries inadequate, faster and more expensive future mitigation would be needed to still reach the targets. Furthermore, there is a gap between pledges by countries in their NDCs and implementation of these pledges; one third of the emission gap between the lowest-costs and actual reductions in emissions would be closed by implementing existing pledges. A pair of studies in Nature found that as of 2017 none of
4223-523: The UNFCCC Secretariat . Each further ambition should be more ambitious than the previous one, known as the principle of progression . Countries can cooperate and pool their nationally determined contributions. The Intended Nationally Determined Contributions pledged during the 2015 Climate Change Conference are converted to NDCs when a country ratifies the Paris Agreement, unless they submit an update. The Paris Agreement does not prescribe
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4326-628: The codes or regulations that buildings must conform to is important for keeping people healthy and comfortable during extremes of hot and cold and protecting them from floods. There are many ways to do this. They include increasing the insulation values, adding solar shading, increasing natural ventilation or passive cooling , codes for green roofs to reduce urban heat island effects or requiring waterfront properties to have higher foundations. Land use zoning controls are central to investment in urban development . They can reduce risks to areas threatened by floods and landslides. Insurance spreads
4429-440: The international transfer of mitigation outcomes (ITMOs). The agreement recognizes the rights of parties to use emissions reductions outside of their own borders toward their NDC, in a system of carbon accounting and trading. This provision requires the "linkage" of carbon emissions trading systems – because measured emissions reductions must avoid "double counting", transferred mitigation outcomes must be recorded as
4532-682: The 1990s. The number and variety of subtopics has greatly increased since then. Adaptation has become an established policy area in the 2010s and since the Paris Agreement, and an important topic for policy research. Scientific research into climate change adaptation generally starts with analyses of the likely effects of climate change on people, ecosystems, and the environment. These impacts cover its effects on lives, livelihoods, health and well-being, ecosystems and species, economic, social and cultural assets, and infrastructure. Impacts may include changed agricultural yields, increased floods, and droughts or coral reef bleaching. Analysis of such impacts
4635-479: The 1992 Earth Summit is one of the first international treaties on the topic. It stipulates that parties should meet regularly to address climate change, at the Conference of Parties or COP. It forms the foundation to future climate agreements. The Kyoto Protocol , adopted in 1997, regulated greenhouse gas reductions for a limited set of countries from 2008 to 2012. The protocol was extended until 2020 with
4738-497: The 2°C upper target of the Paris Agreement, that the probabilities of major emitters meeting their NDCs without such an increase is very low. It estimated that with current trends the probability of staying below 2 °C of warming is 5% – and 26% if NDCs were met and continued post-2030 by all signatories. As of 2020 , there is little scientific literature on the topics of the effectiveness of the Paris Agreement on capacity building and adaptation, even though they feature prominently in
4841-585: The COP 21, Laurent Fabius , argued that the implementation of the Paris Agreement could be bolstered by the adoption of a Global Pact for the Environment . The latter would define the environmental rights and duties of states, individuals and businesses. The effectiveness of the Paris Agreement to reach its climate goals is under debate, with most experts saying it is insufficient for its more ambitious goal of keeping global temperature rise under 1.5°C. Many of
4944-578: The Doha Amendment in 2012. The United States decided not to ratify the Protocol, mainly because of its legally-binding nature. This, and distributional conflict, led to failures of subsequent international climate negotiations. The 2009 negotiations were intended to produce a successor treaty of Kyoto, but the negotiations collapsed and the resulting Copenhagen Accord was not legally binding and did not get adopted universally. The Accord did lay
5047-514: The EU might delay the Paris pact. However, the EU deposited its instruments of ratification on 5 October 2016, along with seven EU member states. The EU and 194 states, totalling over 98% of greenhouse gas emissions , have ratified or acceded to the agreement. The only countries which have not ratified are some greenhouse gas emitters in the Middle East : Iran with 2% of the world total being
5150-500: The EU and its member states are individually responsible for ratifying the Paris Agreement. A strong preference was reported that the EU and its 28 member states ratify at the same time to ensure that they do not engage themselves to fulfilling obligations that strictly belong to the other, and there were fears by observers that disagreement over each member state's share of the EU-wide reduction target, as well as Britain's vote to leave
5253-604: The French increased the likelihood of success were: firstly to ensure that Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) were completed before the start of the negotiations, and secondly to invite leaders just for the beginning of the conference. The negotiations almost failed because of a single word when the US legal team realized at the last minute that "shall" had been approved, rather than "should", meaning that developed countries would have been legally obliged to cut emissions:
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#17327651723525356-523: The French solved the problem by changing it as a "typographical error". At the conclusion of COP21 (the 21st meeting of the Conference of the Parties), on 12 December 2015, the final wording of the Paris Agreement was adopted by consensus by the 195 UNFCCC participating member states and the European Union. Nicaragua indicated they had wanted to object to the adoption as they denounced the weakness of
5459-619: The Global Goal are in development as of 2023. It will support the long-term adaptation goals of the governments that are parties to the agreement. It also aims to fund support for the most vulnerable countries’ adaptation needs in the context of the 1.5/2 °C goal. It has three core components. These are reducing vulnerability to climate change, enhancing adaptive capacity, and strengthening resilience. Adaptation can help decrease climate risk by addressing three interacting risk factors. These are hazards , vulnerability , and exposure. It
5562-555: The IPCC, climate change vulnerability encompasses a variety of concepts and elements, including sensitivity or susceptibility to harm and lack of capacity to cope and adapt. Sensitivity to climate change could be reduced by for example increasing the storage capacity of a reservoir, or planting crops that are more resistant to climate variability. It is also possible to reduce vulnerability in towns and cities with green garden spaces. These can reduce heat stress and food insecurity for low-income neighbourhoods. Ecosystem-based adaptation
5665-607: The Paris Agreement and the Kyoto Protocol is their scope. The Kyoto Protocol differentiated between Annex-I , richer countries with a historical responsibility for climate change, and non-Annex-I countries, but this division is blurred in the Paris Agreement as all parties are required to submit emissions reduction plans. The Paris Agreement still emphasizes the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibility and Respective Capabilities – the acknowledgement that different nations have different capacities and duties to climate action – but it does not provide
5768-457: The Paris Agreement are insufficient for reaching the set temperature goals, there is a mechanism of increased ambition . The Paris Agreement has been successfully used in climate litigation forcing countries and an oil company to strengthen climate action. The aim of the agreement, as described in Article 2, is to have a stronger response to the danger of climate change; it seeks to enhance
5871-468: The Paris Agreement as a framework for a global carbon market. Article 6 is the only important part of the agreement yet to be resolved; negotiations in 2019 did not produce a result. The topic was settled during the 2021 COP26 in Glasgow . A mechanism, the "corresponding adjustment", was established to avoid double counting for emission offsets. Paragraphs 6.2 and 6.3 establish a framework to govern
5974-430: The Paris Agreement pledges, the average temperature would rise by 2.4°C, and with every zero emission target reached, the average temperature would rise by 2.0°C. The Production Gap 2021 report states that world governments still plan to produce 110% more fossil fuels in 2030 (including 240% more coal, 57% more oil and 71% more gas) than the 1.5 degree limit. In September 2023 the first global stocktake report about
6077-408: The Paris Agreement that are yet to be set. Most NDCs have a conditional component. While the NDCs themselves are not binding, the procedures surrounding them are. These procedures include the obligation to prepare, communicate and maintain successive NDCs, set a new one every five years, and provide information about the implementation. There is no mechanism to force a country to set a NDC target by
6180-423: The Paris Agreement. The literature available is mostly mixed in its conclusions about loss and damage, and adaptation. According to the stocktake report, the agreement has a significant effect: while in 2010 the expected temperature rise by 2100 was 3.7–4.8 °C, at COP 27 it was 2.4–2.6°C and if all countries will fulfill their long-term pledges even 1.7–2.1 °C. Despite it, the world is still very far from reaching
6283-663: The UN Headquarters in New York. Signing of the agreement is the first step towards ratification , but it is possible to accede to the agreement without signing. It binds parties to not act in contravention of the goal of the treaty. On 1 April 2016, the United States and China, which represent almost 40% of global emissions confirmed they would sign the Paris Climate Agreement. The agreement
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#17327651723526386-497: The UN is running a partnership titled "Climate Risk and Early Warning Systems" to aid high risk countries with neglected warning systems in developing them. Climate Information Services (CIS) (or climate services) entail the dissemination of climate data in a way that aids people and organizations in making decisions. CIS helps its users foresee and control the hazards associated with a changing and unpredictable climate. It encompasses
6489-502: The US would "earn its way back" into legitimacy in the Paris process. United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres welcomed the return of the United States as restoring the "missing link that weakened the whole". The Paris Agreement is a short agreement with 16 introductory paragraphs and 29 articles. It contains procedural articles (covering, for example, the criteria for its entry into force) and operational articles (covering, for example, mitigation, adaptation and finance). It
6592-557: The United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP28) commenced in Dubai with renewed calls for amplified efforts towards climate action. Article 6 has been flagged as containing some of the key provisions of the Paris Agreement. Broadly, it outlines the cooperative approaches that parties can take in achieving their nationally determined carbon emissions reductions. In doing so, it helps establish
6695-491: The ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development, in a manner that does not threaten food production; (c) Making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development. Countries furthermore aim to reach "global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible." The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), adopted at
6798-578: The ability to design and implement effective adaptation strategies, or to react to evolving hazards and stresses. Societies that can respond to change quickly and successfully have a high adaptive capacity. Conversely, high adaptive capacity does not necessarily lead to successful adaptation action. It does not necessarily succeed in goals of equity and enhancing well-being. In general, adaptation capacity differs between high and low-income countries. By some indices such as ND-GAIN , high-income countries tend to have higher adaptive capacity. However, there
6901-418: The adoption of resilient building codes to mitigate potential damages. Coordination helps achieve goals shared by a range of people or organizations. Examples are information-sharing or joint implementation of adaptation options. Coordination helps use resources effectively. It avoids duplication, promotes consistency across government, and makes it easier for all people and organizations involved to understand
7004-417: The agreement, but were not given a chance. In the agreement the members promised to reduce their carbon output "as soon as possible" and to do their best to keep global warming " to well below 2 degrees C " (3.6 °F). The Paris Agreement was open for signature by states and regional economic integration organizations that are parties to the UNFCCC (the convention) from 22 April 2016 to 21 April 2017 at
7107-408: The agreement. Some countries struggle to attract the finance necessary for investments in decarbonization. Climate finance is fragmented, further complicating investments. Another issue is the lack of capabilities in government and other institutions to implement policy. Clean technology and knowledge is often not transferred to countries or places that need it. In December 2020, the former chair of
7210-479: The aim of the agreement: limiting temperature rise to 1.5 degrees. For doing this, emissions must peak by 2025. In September 2021, the Climate Action Tracker estimated that, with current policies, global emissions will double above the 2030 target level. The gap is 20-23 Gt CO2e. Countries such as Iran, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, and Thailand have been criticised of not doing enough to meet
7313-400: The atmosphere, is also known as climate change mitigation . There are some synergies or co-benefits between adaptation and mitigation. Synergies include the benefits of public transport for both mitigation and adaptation. Public transport has lower greenhouse gas emissions per kilometer travelled than cars. A good public transport network also increases resilience in case of disasters. This
7416-500: The climate changes or is expected to change, which is different from place to place. Adaptation is particularly important in developing countries because they are most vulnerable to climate change. Adaptation needs are high for food, water and other sectors important for economic output, jobs and incomes. One of the challenges is to prioritize the needs of communities, including the poorest, to help ensure they are not disproportionately affected by climate change. Adaptation planning
7519-471: The commitment to mobilize $ 100 billion a year in climate finance by 2020, and agreed to continue mobilising finance at this level until 2025. The money is for supporting mitigation and adaptation in developing countries. It includes finance for the Green Climate Fund , which is a part of the UNFCCC, but also for a variety of other public and private pledges. The Paris Agreement states that
7622-433: The context of climate change covers human, natural, or managed systems. It looks at how they respond to both climate variability and extremes. It covers the ability of a system to adjust to climate change to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with consequences. Adaptive capacity is the ability to reduce the likelihood of negative impacts of climate-related hazards. It does this through
7725-572: The depositary is notified. On 4 August 2017, the Trump administration delivered an official notice to the United Nations that the United States, the second largest emitter of greenhouse gases after China, intended to withdraw from the Paris Agreement as soon as it was eligible to do so. The notice of withdrawal could not be submitted until the agreement was in force for three years for the US, on 4 November 2019. The U.S. government deposited
7828-409: The exact nature of the NDCs. At a minimum, they should contain mitigation provisions, but they may also contain pledges on adaptation, finance, technology transfer , capacity building and transparency. Some of the pledges in the NDCs are unconditional, but others are conditional on outside factors such as getting finance and technical support, the ambition from other parties or the details of rules of
7931-400: The exact provisions of the Paris Agreement have yet to be straightened out, so that it may be too early to judge effectiveness. According to the 2020 United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ), with the current climate commitments of the Paris Agreement, global mean temperatures will likely rise by more than 3°C by the end of the 21st century. Newer net zero commitments were not included in
8034-939: The face of rains and floods. They can help manage impacts and risks to people and nature. The four types of adaptation actions are infrastructural , institutional, behavioural and nature-based options. Some examples of these are building seawalls or inland flood defenses, providing new insurance schemes, changing crop planting times or varieties, and installing green roofs or green spaces. Adaptation can be reactive (responding to climate impacts as they happen) or proactive (taking steps in anticipation of future climate change). The need for adaptation varies from place to place. Different regions must adapt differently because they each face particular sets of climate risks . For instance, coastal regions might prioritize sea-level rise defenses and mangrove restoration. Arid areas could focus on water scarcity solutions, land restoration and heat management. The needs for adaptation will also depend on how much
8137-432: The financial impact of flooding and other extreme weather events. There is an increasing availability of such options. For example, index-based insurance is a new product which triggers payment when weather indices such as precipitation or temperature cross a threshold. It aims to help customers such as farmers deal with production risks. Access to reinsurance may make cities more resilient. Where there are failures in
8240-411: The first evaluation in 2023. The outcome is to be used as input for new nationally determined contributions of parties. The Talanoa Dialogue in 2018 was seen as an example for the global stocktake. After a year of discussion, a report was published and there was a call for action, but countries did not increase ambition afterwards. The stocktake works as part of the Paris Agreement's effort to create
8343-624: The food supply chain. Thus it can be a risk to food security and nutrition. Adaptation measures can review the production, processing and other handling practices of suppliers. Examples include further sorting to separate damaged products, drying the product for better storage or improved packaging. Other behaviour change options for retailers and consumers include accepting fruit and vegetables that appear less than perfect, redistributing food surpluses, and lowering prices on nearly expired food. Dietary change options in regions with excess consumption of calories include replacing meat and dairy foods with
8446-463: The framework for bottom-up approach of the Paris Agreement. Under the leadership of UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , negotiation regained momentum after Copenhagen's failure. During the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference , the Durban Platform was established to negotiate a legal instrument governing climate change mitigation measures from 2020. The platform had
8549-506: The frequency and severity of extreme weather events and disasters. So adaptation may include measures to increase preparedness and relevant disaster response capacities. For humans, adaptation aims to moderate or avoid harm, and to exploit opportunities. For natural systems, humans may intervene to help adjustment. The Paris Agreement of 2015 requires countries to keep global temperature rise this century to less than 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, and to pursue efforts to limit
8652-508: The global south. Behavioural adaptation is a change in the strategies, practices and actions that help to reduce risk. These can include protecting homes from flooding, protecting crops from drought, and adopting different income-earning activities. Behavioural change is the most common form of adaptation. Food waste spoilage increases with exposure to higher temperatures and humidity. It also increases with extreme events such as flooding and contamination. This can happen at different points in
8755-501: The implementation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change through: (a) Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change; (b) Increasing
8858-558: The implementation of the agreement was released. According to the report contrarily to expectations, the agreement has a significant effect: while in 2010 the expected temperature rise by 2100 was 3.7–4.8 °C, at COP 27 it was 2.4–2.6°C and if all countries will fulfill their long-term pledges 1.7–2.1 °C. However, the world remains very far from limiting warming to 1.5 degrees. To meet this benchmark, global emissions must peak by 2025, and although emissions have peaked in some countries, global emissions have not. Developed countries reaffirmed
8961-412: The largest. Libya and Yemen have also not ratified the agreement . Eritrea is the latest country to ratify the agreement, on 7 February 2023. Article 28 enables parties to withdraw from the agreement after sending a withdrawal notification to the depositary . Notice can be given no earlier than three years after the agreement goes into force for the country. Withdrawal is effective one year after
9064-418: The major industrialized nations were implementing the policies they had pledged, and none met their pledged emission reduction targets, and even if they had, the sum of all member pledges (as of 2016) would not keep global temperature rise "well below 2°C". In 2021, a study using a probabilistic model concluded that the rates of emissions reductions would have to increase by 80% beyond NDCs to likely meet
9167-416: The middle of the 21st century. To stay below 1.5 °C of global warming, emissions need to be cut by roughly 50% by 2030. This figure takes into account each country's documented pledges . The treaty aims to help countries adapt to climate change effects, and mobilize enough finance. Under the agreement, each country must determine, plan, and regularly report on its contributions. No mechanism forces
9270-407: The ministries have the role, to oversee and implement these obligations and enforce national laws. However, as the legal and institutional structures differ remarkably across Europe, so too do the approaches to implementation of environmental legislation. Consequently there is a substantial variety in the roles of EPAs and what they are tasked with, however the main tasks are: The EPA Network provides
9373-805: The national level, adaptation strategies appear in National Adaptation Plans (NAPS) and National Adaptation Programmes of Action ( NAPA ). They also occur in national climate change policies and strategies. These are at different levels of development in different countries and in cities. This is discussed further in the section below on "implementation". Cities, states, and provinces often have considerable responsibility in land use planning, public health, and disaster management. Institutional adaptation actions occur more frequently in cities than in other sectors. Some have begun to adapt to threats intensified by climate change, such as flooding, bushfires, heatwaves, and rising sea levels. Managing
9476-586: The notification with the Secretary General of the United Nations and officially withdrew one year later on 4 November 2020. President Joe Biden signed an executive order on his first day in office, 20 January 2021, to re-admit the United States into the Paris Agreement. Following the 30-day period set by Article 21.3, the U.S. was readmitted to the agreement. United States Climate Envoy John Kerry took part in virtual events, saying that
9579-648: The private insurance market, the public sector can subsidize premiums. One study identified key equity issues for policy considerations: Government-subsidized insurance, such as the U.S. National Flood Insurance Program, comes under criticism for providing a perverse incentive to develop properties in hazardous areas. This increases overall risk. Insurance can also undermine other efforts such as property level protection and resilience to increase adaptation. Appropriate land-use policies can counter this behavioural effect. These policies limit new construction where there are current or future climate risks. They also encourage
9682-580: The processes governing the reporting and review of these goals are mandated under international law . This structure is especially notable for the United States—because there are no legal mitigation or finance targets, the agreement is considered an "executive agreement rather than a treaty". Because the UNFCCC treaty of 1992 received the consent of the US Senate, this new agreement does not require further legislation. Another key difference between
9785-460: The requirements of the agreement, and are on track to achieve a 4°C warming of the planet if current policies are implemented more widely. Of the world's countries, only the Gambia's emissions are at the level required by the Paris Agreement. Models predicted that if the necessary measures were not implemented by autumn 2021, the global average temperature would rise by 2.9°C. With the implementation of
9888-455: The section below "by type of climate change impact". Because of changes in extreme weather and sea level rise , due to climate change, the UN has recommended early warning systems as key elements of climate change adaptation and climate risk management . Flooding, cyclones and other rapidly changing weather events can make communities in coastal areas, along floodzones and reliant on agriculture very vulnerable to extreme events. To this end
9991-598: The structure and processes governing the SDM are not yet determined, certain similarities and differences from the Clean Development Mechanisms have become clear. A key difference is that the SDM will be available to all parties as opposed to only Annex-I parties , making it much wider in scope. The Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol was criticized for failing to produce either meaningful emissions reductions or sustainable development benefits in most instances. and for its complexity. It
10094-402: The temperature increase to 1.5 °C. Even if greenhouse gas emissions are stopped relatively soon, global warming and its effects will last many years. This is due to the inertia of the climate system . So both carbon neutrality ("net zero") and adaptation are necessary. The Global Goal on Adaptation was also established under the Paris Agreement. The specific targets and indicators for
10197-405: The treaty. Alternative ways to join the treaty are acceptance, approval or accession. The first two are typically used when a head of state is not necessary to bind a country to a treaty, whereas the latter typically happens when a country joins a treaty already in force. After ratification by the European Union, the agreement obtained enough parties to enter into effect on 4 November 2016. Both
10300-562: The way conditions vary rather than changes in average conditions. For example, the average sea level in a port might not be as important as the height of water during a storm surge. That is because a storm surge can cause flooding. The average rainfall in an area might not be as important as how frequent and severe droughts and extreme precipitation events become. Climate change contributes to disaster risk. So experts sometimes see climate change adaptation as one of many processes within disaster risk reduction . In turn, disaster risk reduction
10403-401: The work. In the food production sector, adaptation projects financed through the UNFCCC often include coordination between national governments and administrations at the state, provincial or city level. There are fewer examples of coordination between community-level and national government. Individuals and households play a central role in adaptation. There are many examples particularly in
10506-550: Was negotiated by 196 parties at the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference near Paris , France. As of February 2023, 195 members of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) are parties to the agreement. Of the three UNFCCC member states which have not ratified the agreement, the only major emitter is Iran . The United States withdrew from the agreement in 2020, but rejoined in 2021. The Paris Agreement has
10609-475: Was signed by 175 parties (174 states and the European Union) on the first day it was opened for signature. As of March 2021, 194 states and the European Union have signed the agreement. The agreement would enter into force (and thus become fully effective) if 55 countries that produce at least 55% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions (according to a list produced in 2015) ratify or otherwise join
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