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37-584: The Empire style ( French pronunciation: [ɑ̃.piːʁ] , style Empire ) is an early-nineteenth-century design movement in architecture , furniture , other decorative arts , and the visual arts , representing the second phase of Neoclassicism . It flourished between 1800 and 1815 during the Consulate and the First French Empire periods, although its life span lasted until the late-1820s. From France it spread into much of Europe and

74-586: A fashion designer , a product designer , a web designer , or an interior designer ), but it can also designate other practitioners such as architects and engineers (see below: Types of designing). A designer's sequence of activities to produce a design is called a design process, with some employing designated processes such as design thinking and design methods . The process of creating a design can be brief (a quick sketch) or lengthy and complicated, involving considerable research, negotiation, reflection, modeling , interactive adjustment, and re-design. Designing

111-809: A full return to ostentatious richness. The style corresponds somewhat to the Biedermeier style in the German-speaking lands, Federal style in the United States, and the Regency style in Britain. The Directoire style of the immediately preceding period aimed at a simpler, but still elegant evocation of the virtues of the Ancient Roman Republic : The stoic virtues of Republican Rome were upheld as standards not merely for

148-411: A range of applications both for the term 'art' and the term 'design'. Applied arts can include industrial design , graphic design , fashion design , and the decorative arts which traditionally includes craft objects. In graphic arts (2D image making that ranges from photography to illustration), the distinction is often made between fine art and commercial art , based on the context within which

185-406: A very distinctive type of grain, depending upon the tree species. In any of the veneer-slicing methods, when the veneer is sliced, a distortion of the grain occurs. As it hits the wood, the knife blade creates a "loose" side where the cells have been opened up by the blade, and a "tight" side. Veneers are cut as thin as 0.64 mm ( 1 ⁄ 40  in). Depending on the cutting process used by

222-656: Is also a part of general education, for example within the curriculum topic, Design and Technology . The development of design in general education in the 1970s created a need to identify fundamental aspects of 'designerly' ways of knowing, thinking, and acting, which resulted in establishing design as a distinct discipline of study. Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, produce designs. Design researchers Dorst and Dijkhuis acknowledged that "there are many ways of describing design processes," and compare and contrast two dominant but different views of

259-497: Is also a widespread activity outside of the professions of those formally recognized as designers. In his influential book The Sciences of the Artificial, the interdisciplinary scientist Herbert A. Simon proposed that, "Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones." According to the design researcher Nigel Cross , "Everyone can – and does – design," and "Design ability

296-490: Is based on an empiricist philosophy and broadly consistent with the agile approach and methodical development. Substantial empirical evidence supports the veracity of this perspective in describing the actions of real designers. Like the rational model, the action-centric model sees design as informed by research and knowledge. At least two views of design activity are consistent with the action-centric perspective. Both involve these three basic activities: The concept of

333-438: Is glued with its grain at right angles to adjacent layers for strength. Veneer beading is a thin layer of decorative edging placed around objects, such as jewelry boxes. Veneer is also used to replace decorative papers in wood veneer high pressure laminate. Veneering dates back to at least the ancient Egyptians who used expensive and rare wood veneers over cheaper timbers to produce their furniture and sarcophagi . During

370-466: Is informed by research and knowledge in a predictable and controlled manner. Typical stages consistent with the rational model include the following: Each stage has many associated best practices . The rational model has been widely criticized on two primary grounds: The action-centric perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to the rational model. It posits that: The action-centric perspective

407-618: Is something that everyone has, to some extent, because it is embedded in our brains as a natural cognitive function." The study of design history is complicated by varying interpretations of what constitutes 'designing'. Many design historians, such as John Heskett , look to the Industrial Revolution and the development of mass production. Others subscribe to conceptions of design that include pre-industrial objects and artefacts, beginning their narratives of design in prehistoric times. Originally situated within art history ,

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444-660: The Gorgon , swans, lions, the heads of oxen, horses and wild beasts, butterflies, claws, winged chimeras , sphinxes , bucrania , sea horses, oak wreaths knotted by thin trailing ribbons, climbing grape vines, poppy rinceaux , rosettes , palm branches, and laurel. There's a lot of Greco-Roman ones: stiff and flat acanthus leaves, palmettes , cornucopias , beads, amphoras , tripods, imbricated disks, caduceuses of Mercury , vases , helmets , burning torches, winged trumpet players, and ancient musical instruments (tubas, rattles and especially lyres ). Despite their antique derivation,

481-560: The colonies . Biedermeier furniture also used ebony details, originally due to financial constraints. Ormolu details (gilded bronze furniture mounts and embellishments) displayed a high level of craftsmanship. General Bernadotte, later to become King Karl Johan of Sweden and Norway , introduced the Napoleonic style to Sweden, where it became known under his own name. The Karl Johan style remained popular in Scandinavia even as

518-400: The design cycle is understood as a circular time structure, which may start with the thinking of an idea, then expressing it by the use of visual or verbal means of communication (design tools), the sharing and perceiving of the expressed idea, and finally starting a new cycle with the critical rethinking of the perceived idea. Anderson points out that this concept emphasizes the importance of

555-659: The fluting and triglyphs so prevalent under Louis XVI are abandoned. Egyptian Revival motifs are especially common at the beginning of the period: scarabs , lotus capitals , winged disks, obelisks, pyramids , figures wearing nemeses , caryatids en gaine supported by bare feet and with women Egyptian headdresses. The most famous Empire-style structures in France are the grand neoclassical Arc de Triomphe of Place de l'Étoile, Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel , Vendôme column , and La Madeleine , which were built in Paris to emulate

592-492: The Empire style disappeared from other parts of Europe. France paid some of its debts to Sweden in ormolu bronzes instead of money, leading to a vogue for crystal chandeliers with bronze from France and crystal from Sweden. After Napoleon lost power, the Empire style continued to be in favour for many decades, with minor adaptations. There was a revival of the style in the last half of the nineteenth century in France, again at

629-542: The Empire style was adapted to local conditions and gradually acquired further expression as the Egyptian Revival , Greek Revival , Biedermeier style, Regency style , and late- Federal style . All Empire ornament is governed by a rigorous spirit of symmetry reminiscent of the Louis XIV style . Generally, the motifs on a piece's right and left sides correspond to one another in every detail; when they do not,

666-522: The Roman Empire, Romans also used veneered work in mass quantities. Veneer is obtained either by "peeling" the trunk of a tree or by slicing large rectangular blocks of wood known as flitches. The appearance of the grain and figure in wood comes from slicing through the growth rings of a tree and depends upon the angle at which the wood is sliced. There are three main types of veneer-making equipment used commercially: Each slicing process gives

703-649: The United States. The Empire style originated in and takes its name from the rule of the Emperor Napoleon I in the First French Empire , when it was intended to idealize Napoleon's leadership and the French state. The previous fashionable style in France had been the Directoire style , a more austere and minimalist form of Neoclassicism that replaced the Louis XVI style , and the new Empire style brought

740-473: The arts but also for political behaviour and private morality. Conventionels saw themselves as antique heroes. Children were named after Brutus , Solon and Lycurgus . The festivals of the Revolution were staged by David as antique rituals. Even the chairs in which the committee of Salut Publique sat were made on antique models devised by David. ...In fact Neo-classicism became fashionable. Before

777-582: The beginning of the twentieth century, and again in the 1980s. The style survived in Italy longer than in most of Europe, partly because of its Imperial Roman associations, partly because it was revived as a national style of architecture following the unification of Italy in 1870. Mario Praz wrote about this style as the Italian Empire. In the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States,

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814-414: The decoration of interiors of the early 19th century are: [REDACTED] Media related to Empire style at Wikimedia Commons Design People who produce designs are called designers . The term 'designer' usually refers to someone who works professionally in one of the various design areas. Within the professions, the word 'designer' is generally qualified by the area of practice (for example:

851-671: The design process: as a rational problem-solving process and as a process of reflection-in-action. They suggested that these two paradigms "represent two fundamentally different ways of looking at the world – positivism and constructionism ." The paradigms may reflect differing views of how designing should be done and how it actually is done, and both have a variety of names. The problem-solving view has been called "the rational model," "technical rationality" and "the reason-centric perspective." The alternative view has been called "reflection-in-action," "coevolution" and "the action-centric perspective." The rational model

888-516: The development of the Empire style there was a brief transitional Consulate style that formed under the Consulate . This style introduced many of the motifs of Empire style, taking inspiration from military campaigns, including the French campaign in Egypt and Syria , and was more formal and rectangular. The Empire style "turned to the florid opulence of Imperial Rome . The abstemious severity of Doric

925-572: The edifices of the Roman Empire. The style also was used widely in Imperial Russia , where it was used to celebrate the victory over Napoleon in such memorial structures as the General Staff Building , Kazan Cathedral , Alexander Column , and Narva Triumphal Gate . Stalinist architecture is sometimes referred to as Stalin's Empire style. The Royal Palace of Amsterdam houses a complete collection of Empire furniture from

962-577: The eighteenth century. The preceding Louis XVI and Directoire styles employed straighter, simpler designs compared to the Rococo style of the eighteenth century. Empire designs strongly influenced the contemporary American Federal style (such as design of the United States Capitol building), and both were forms of propaganda through architecture. It was a style of the people, not ostentatious but sober and evenly balanced. The style

999-423: The historical development of the discipline of design history coalesced in the 1970s, as interested academics worked to recognize design as a separate and legitimate target for historical research. Early influential design historians include German-British art historian Nikolaus Pevsner and Swiss historian and architecture critic Sigfried Giedion . In Western Europe, institutions for design education date back to

1036-697: The individual motifs themselves are entirely symmetrical in composition: antique heads with identical tresses falling onto each shoulder, frontal figures of Victory with symmetrically arrayed tunics, identical rosettes or swans flanking a lock plate, etc. Like Louis XIV , Napoleon had a set of emblems unmistakably associated with his rule, most notably the eagle, the bee, stars, and the initials I (for Imperator ) and N (for Napoleon ), which were usually inscribed within an imperial laurel crown. Motifs used include: figures of Nike bearing palm branches, Greek dancers, nude and draped women, figures of antique chariots, winged putti , mascarons of Apollo , Hermes and

1073-427: The means of expression, which at the same time are means of perception of any design ideas. Philosophy of design is the study of definitions, assumptions, foundations, and implications of design. There are also many informal 'philosophies' for guiding design such as personal values or preferred approaches. Some of these values and approaches include: The boundaries between art and design are blurry, largely due to

1110-473: The nineteenth century. The Norwegian National Academy of Craft and Art Industry was founded in 1818, followed by the United Kingdom's Government School of Design (1837), and Konstfack in Sweden (1844). The Rhode Island School of Design was founded in the United States in 1877. The German art and design school Bauhaus , founded in 1919, greatly influenced modern design education. Design education covers

1147-453: The teaching of theory, knowledge and values in the design of products, services, and environments, with a focus on the development of both particular and general skills for designing. Traditionally, its primary orientation has been to prepare students for professional design practice, based on project work and studio, or atelier , teaching methods. There are also broader forms of higher education in design studies and design thinking . Design

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1184-482: The time of Louis Bonaparte , the largest collection outside of France. Interiors have spacious rooms, richly decorated with symmetrically arranged motifs. The walls are decorated with Corinthian pilasters and vertical panels, having at the top a decorative frieze . The panels are covered with monumental paintings, stuccos , or with embroidered silks. The ceilings have light colours and fine ornaments. Historic sites which present an homogeneous ensemble, examples of

1221-474: The veneer manufacturer, very little wood is wasted by the saw blade thickness, known as the saw kerf . Some manufacturers use a very wide knife to slice off the thin veneer pieces. In this process, none of the wood is wasted. The slices of veneer are always kept in the order in which they are cut from the log and are often sold this way. Historically, veneers were also sawn in approximately 3 mm ( 1 ⁄ 8  in) thick layers. Veneer falls within

1258-634: The work is produced and how it is traded. Wood veneer In woodworking , veneers are derived from trees, they resemble actual wood, with each sheet of veneer having a distinct look. Unlike laminates, no two veneer sheets look the same. Veneer refers to thin slices of wood and sometimes bark that typically are glued onto core panels (typically, wood, particle board or medium-density fiberboard ) to produce flat panels such as doors, tops and panels for cabinets , parquet floors and parts of furniture . They are also used in marquetry . Plywood consists of three or more layers of veneer. Normally, each

1295-537: Was considered to have "liberated" and "enlightened" architecture just as the propaganda that Napoleon had "liberated" the peoples of Europe with his Napoleonic Code . The Empire period was popularized by the inventive designs of Percier and Fontaine , Napoleon's architects for Malmaison . The designs drew for inspiration on symbols and ornaments borrowed from the glorious ancient Greek and Roman empires. Buildings typically had simple timber frames and box-like constructions, veneered in expensive mahogany imported from

1332-400: Was independently developed by Herbert A. Simon, an American scientist, and two German engineering design theorists, Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz. It posits that: The rational model is based on a rationalist philosophy and underlies the waterfall model , systems development life cycle , and much of the engineering design literature. According to the rationalist philosophy, design

1369-703: Was replaced by Corinthian richness and splendour". Two French architects, Percier and Fontaine, were together the creators of the French Empire style. The two had studied in Rome and in the 1790s became leading furniture designers in Paris , where they received many commissions from Napoleon and other statesmen. Architecture of the Empire style was based on elements of the Roman Empire and its many archaeological treasures, which had been rediscovered starting in

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