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57-423: ELCs are available in a variety of subjects, such as English , Maths , Science , French , Life Skills and Childcare . The qualifications are targeted at those who struggle to access the mainstream curriculum, such as students with special educational needs . Most students take the qualifications in school at ages 14–16, as an alternative to GCSEs, but many adults also take them. Students are assessed through

114-619: A Literacy test. Students in grades 9–12 learn the skills of critical thinking and analysis by practicing close reading . Students are asked to draw connections from the texts they are assigned with ideas discussed in class. They are also taught how to analyze fiction and nonfiction works and answer questions using citations from the texts. Overall, most high school English programs follow the Common Core Standards, which require students to meet objectives in reading, writing, speaking and listening. In European secondary schools,

171-446: A combination of coursework , controlled assessment and examinations , depending on the qualification. ELCs are offered by a number of examination boards , including AQA , CCEA , Edexcel , OCR and WJEC . A student successfully completing an ELC is awarded one of the following grades, which are common to all Entry Level qualifications: Those who do not reach the level for Entry 1 are recorded as uncertified (U) and do not have

228-530: A communication tool. English is used as a communication tool, as opposed to literature analysis. This research looks at how a method called TSLT can help in English classes for people who speak English as a foreign language. It studies how students, teachers, and textbooks are important in this method. It also looks at how this method works in a typical Japanese high school class. The Japan Association for Language Teaching focuses on Japanese high school students in

285-602: A cross-cultural approach that pays no heed to national borders. Works of this nature include Alamgir Hashmi 's The Commonwealth, Comparative Literature and the World , Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak 's Death of a Discipline , David Damrosch's What is World Literature? , Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek's concept of "comparative cultural studies", and Pascale Casanova's The World Republic of Letters . It remains to be seen whether this approach will prove successful given that comparative literature had its roots in nation-based thinking and much of

342-560: A list of books in comparative literature see "Bibliography of (Text)Books in Comparative Literature". Work considered foundational to the discipline of comparative literature include Spanish humanist Juan Andrés 's work, Transylvanian Hungarian Hugo Meltzl de Lomnitz's scholarship, also the founding editor of the journal Acta Comparationis Litterarum Universarum (1877) and Irish scholar H.M. Posnett 's Comparative Literature (1886). However, antecedents can be found in

399-452: A number of elective multidisciplinary topics such as history , courses in the social sciences , and studies in a foreign language. To the end of studying these disciplines, many degree programs also offer training in professional writing with relations to rhetoric , literary analysis , an appreciation for the diversity of cultures, and an ability to clearly and persuasively express their ideas in writing. The history of English studies at

456-503: A practice of reading pre-modern texts, became the preferred scholarly paradigm. However, English-speaking countries distanced themselves from philological paradigms soon after World War I. At the end of this process, many English departments refocused their work on various forms of writing instruction (creative, professional, critical) and the interpreting of literary texts. The English major rose to prominence in American colleges during

513-508: A role similar to that of the study of international relations but works with languages and artistic traditions, so as to understand cultures 'from the inside'". While most frequently practised with works of different languages, comparative literature may also be performed on works of the same language if the works originate from different nations or cultures in which that language is spoken. The characteristically intercultural and transnational field of comparative literature concerns itself with

570-759: A scholar might attempt to trace how a particular literary idea or motif traveled between nations over time. In the French School of Comparative Literature, the study of influences and mentalities dominates. Today, the French School practices the nation-state approach of the discipline although it also promotes the approach of a "European Comparative Literature". The publications from this school include, La Littérature Comparée (1967) by C. Pichois and A.M. Rousseau, La Critique Littéraire (1969) by J.-C. Carloni and Jean Filloux and La Littérature Comparée (1989) by Yves Cheverel, translated into English as Comparative Literature Today: Methods & Perspectives (1995). Like

627-464: A similar course of study and scholarship. Comparative literature is the more widely used term in the United States, with many universities having comparative literature departments or comparative literature programs. Comparative literature is an interdisciplinary field whose practitioners study literature across national borders, time periods, languages, genres, boundaries between literature and

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684-710: A variety of career opportunities for college graduates entering the job market. Since students who graduate with an English degree are trained to ask probing questions about large bodies of texts and then to formulate, analyze, and answer those questions in coherent, persuasive prose —skills vital to any number of careers—English majors have much to choose from after graduation. Typical career choices for English majors include positions in writing, publishing, teaching, journalism, and human resources. However, there are also career opportunities in fields such as advertising , public relations , acting , law , business , marketing , information assurance , and directing. An Anglicist

741-519: Is an academic discipline taught in primary , secondary , and post-secondary education in English-speaking countries . This is not to be confused with English taught as a foreign language , which is a distinct discipline. The English studies discipline involves the study, analysis, and exploration of English literature through texts . English studies include: English linguistics ( syntax , morphology , phonetics , phonology , etc.)

798-409: Is common for departments of English to offer courses and scholarships in all areas of the English language, such as literature, public speaking and speech-writing , rhetoric , composition studies , creative writing , philology and etymology , journalism , poetry , publishing , the philosophy of language , and theater and play-writing , among many others. In most English-speaking countries,

855-584: Is insufficiently well-defined or that comparatists too easily fall into dilettantism because the scope of their work is, of necessity, broad. Some question whether this breadth affects the ability of PhDs to find employment in the highly specialized environment of academia and the career market at large, although such concerns do not seem to be borne out by placement data, which shows comparative literature graduates to be hired at similar or higher rates than English literature graduates. The terms "comparative literature" and "world literature" are often used to designate

912-415: Is no current standard methodology regarding teaching and creating English studies. In removing this standardization, many scholars are reconsidering the function of experts in teaching English studies. While the predominant pedagogy focused on a hierarchical approach, with expert Anglicists advising teachers how to teach English studies, emerging discussions call for approaches that value diversity and with it

969-437: Is regarded as a distinct discipline, taught in a department of linguistics. The North American Modern Language Association (MLA) divides English studies into two disciplines: a language-focused discipline, and a literature-focused discipline. At universities in non-English-speaking countries, one department often covers all aspects of English studies as well as English taught as a foreign language and English linguistics. It

1026-401: Is someone who works in the field of English studies. Historically, the term Anglicist has been very loosely defined, with the term mistakenly used in the same vein as Anglist, a label meant for historians and their studies. However, there have been very specific terms used to describe the different disciplines of English studies and those who study them, such as grammarian; a grammarian focused on

1083-458: Is typically covered in English studies regarding the written analysis of English literature, an emphasis is placed particularly on the prestige of British literature and its importance as a foundational part of English studies. Additionally, as is present in the overall discussion of English studies, British educators continue to debate the relevance of Shakespeare for contemporary teens, with some arguing for more modern texts and others upholding

1140-510: Is undergoing rapid change, however, since many universities are adapting to the new requirements of the recently introduced Bachelor and Master of Arts. German comparative literature is being squeezed by the traditional philologies on the one hand and more vocational programmes of study on the other which seek to offer students the practical knowledge they need for the working world (e.g., 'Applied Literature'). With German universities no longer educating their students primarily for an academic market,

1197-458: The 1970s and 1980s. The field today is highly diverse: for example, comparatists routinely study Chinese literature , Arabic literature and the literatures of most other major world languages and regions as well as English and continental European literatures. There is a movement among comparativists in the United States and elsewhere to re-focus the discipline away from the nation-based approach with which it has previously been associated towards

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1254-722: The English studies discipline if the object of study is an English-language work. The English major (alternatively "English concentration") is a term in the United States and several other countries for an undergraduate university degree focused around reading, analyzing, and writing texts in the English language . The term also can be used to describe a student who is pursuing the degree. Prospective English majors can expect to take college courses in academic writing , creative writing , literary theory , British and American literature, multicultural literature, several literary genres (such as poetry , drama , and film studies ), and

1311-539: The French School, German Comparative Literature has its origins in the late 19th century. After World War II, the discipline developed to a large extent owing to one scholar in particular, Peter Szondi (1929–1971), a Hungarian who taught at the Free University Berlin . Szondi's work in Allgemeine und Vergleichende Literaturwissenschaft (German for "General and Comparative Literary Studies") included

1368-465: The L1 and L2 low writing and reading levels. Their low reading and writing levels in both English and Japanese could be due to them not being taught how. Comparative literature Comparative literature studies is an academic field dealing with the study of literature and cultural expression across linguistic , national , geographic, and disciplinary boundaries. Comparative literature "performs

1425-759: The Netherlands. Yet while he was oriented towards the West and the new allies of West Germany and paid little attention to comparatists in Eastern Europe, his conception of a transnational (and transatlantic) comparative literature was very much influenced by East European literary theorists of the Russian and Prague schools of structuralism, from whose works René Wellek, too, derived many of his concepts. These concepts continue to have profound implications for comparative literary theory today" ... A manual published by

1482-534: The Russian Aesthetic Renaissance [Cambridge UP, 1998. 17]; see also David Damrosch During the late 19th century, comparatists such as Fyodor Buslaev were chiefly concerned with deducing the purported Zeitgeist or "spirit of the times", which they assumed to be embodied in the literary output of each nation. Although many comparative works from this period would be judged chauvinistic, Eurocentric , or even racist by present-day standards,

1539-1246: The West comparative literature is experiencing institutional constriction, there are signs that in many parts of the world the discipline is thriving, especially in Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean, and the Mediterranean. Current trends in Transnational studies also reflect the growing importance of post-colonial literary figures such as J. M. Coetzee , Maryse Condé , Earl Lovelace , V. S. Naipaul , Michael Ondaatje , Wole Soyinka , Derek Walcott , and Lasana M. Sekou . For recent post-colonial studies in North America see George Elliott Clarke. Directions Home: Approaches to African-Canadian Literature . (University of Toronto Press, 2011), Joseph Pivato. Echo: Essays in Other Literatures . (Guernica Editions, 2003), and "The Sherbrooke School of Comparative Canadian Literature". ( Inquire , 2011). In

1596-559: The ability to consider different types of art concurrently over proficiency in multiple languages. The interdisciplinary nature of the field means that comparatists typically exhibit acquaintance with sociology , history , anthropology , translation studies , critical theory, cultural studies , and religious studies . As a result, comparative literature programs within universities may be designed by scholars drawn from several such departments. This eclecticism has led critics (from within and without) to charge that comparative literature

1653-402: The ancient Greek and Latin classics. In the 1990s, there was a collective effort by Anglicists to standardize the academic discipline to follow similar methods of analysis and self-evaluation of both English literature and the criticism of said literature. However, after backlash described this standardization as restricting, Anglicists decided to de-standardize the field, meaning that there

1710-632: The approach of this period is Erich Auerbach 's book Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature , a survey of techniques of realism in texts whose origins span several continents and three thousand years. The approach of the American School would be familiar to current practitioners of cultural studies and is even claimed by some to be the forerunner of the Cultural Studies boom in universities during

1767-769: The area of comparative studies of literature and the other arts see Linda Hutcheon's work on Opera and her A Theory of Adaptation . 2nd. ed. (Routledge, 2012). Canadian scholar Joseph Pivato is carrying on a campaign to revitalize comparative study with his book, Comparative Literature for the New Century eds. Giulia De Gasperi & Joseph Pivato (2018). In response to Pivato Canadian comparatists Susan Ingram and Irene Sywenky co-edited Comparative Literature in Canada: Contemporary Scholarship, Pedagogy, and Publishing in Review (2019), an initiative of

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1824-719: The department of comparative literature at the LMU Munich lists 31 German departments which offer a diploma in comparative literature in Germany, albeit some only as a 'minor'. These are: Augsburg, Bayreuth, Free University Berlin, Technische Universität Berlin, Bochum, Bonn, Chemnitz-Zwickau, Erfurt, Erlangen-Nürnberg, Essen, Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt an der Oder, Gießen, Göttingen , Jena, Karlsruhe, Kassel, Konstanz, Leipzig, Mainz, München, Münster, Osnabrück, Paderborn, Potsdam, Rostock, Saarbrücken, Siegen, Stuttgart, Tübingen, Wuppertal. (Der kleine Komparatist [2003]). This situation

1881-621: The desire to integrate literary experience with other cultural phenomena such as historical change, philosophical concepts, and social movements. The discipline of comparative literature has scholarly associations such as the International Comparative Literature Association (ICLA) and comparative literature associations in many countries. There are many learned journals that publish scholarship in comparative literature: see "Selected Comparative Literature and Comparative Humanities Journals" and for

1938-551: The first half of the 1970s. It provided an opportunity for students to develop critical skills in analytical reading with the aim of improving their writing. It focused on exercises in rhetoric and persuasive expression that had been traditionally only taught in classical studies . Outside the United States (originating in Scotland and then rippling out into the English-speaking world) the English major became popular in

1995-538: The genre of drama, lyric (in particular hermetic) poetry, and hermeneutics : "Szondi's vision of Allgemeine und Vergleichende Literaturwissenschaft became evident in both his policy of inviting international guest speakers to Berlin and his introductions to their talks. Szondi welcomed, among others, Jacques Derrida (before he attained worldwide recognition), Pierre Bourdieu and Lucien Goldman from France, Paul de Man from Zürich, Gershom Sholem from Jerusalem, Theodor W. Adorno from Frankfurt, Hans Robert Jauss from

2052-517: The ideas of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in his vision of " world literature " ( Weltliteratur) and Russian Formalists credited Alexander Veselovsky with laying the groundwork for the discipline. Viktor Zhirmunsky , for instance, referred to Veselovsky as "the most remarkable representative of comparative literary study in Russian and European scholarship of the nineteenth century" (Zhirmunsky qtd. in Rachel Polonsky, English Literature and

2109-466: The identities that students of English studies bring to experts. The absence of a clearly defined disciplinary identity and the increasingly utilitarian goals in U.S. society present a challenge to those academic units still mostly focusing on the printed book and the traditional division in historical periods and national literatures, and neglecting allegedly non-theoretical areas such as professional writing, composition, and multimodal communication. In

2166-681: The intention of most scholars during this period was to increase the understanding of other cultures, not to assert superiority over them (although politicians and others from outside the field sometimes used their works for this purpose). From the early part of the 20th century until the Second World War , the field was characterised by a notably empiricist and positivist approach, termed the "French School", in which scholars like Paul Van Tiegham examined works forensically, looking for evidence of "origins" and "influences" between works from different nations often termed "rapport des faits". Thus

2223-506: The latter half of the 19th century, during a time when religious beliefs were shaken in the face of scientific discoveries. Literature was thought to act as a replacement for religion in the retention and advancement of culture, and the English Major thus provided students with the chance to draw moral , ethical , and philosophical qualities and meanings of older studies from a richer and broader source of literature than that of

2280-418: The links of literature to folklore and mythology, colonial and postcolonial writings in different parts of the world, and asking fundamental questions about the definition of literature itself. What scholars in comparative literature share is a desire to study literature beyond national boundaries and an interest in languages so that they can read foreign texts in their original form. Many comparatists also share

2337-436: The literature under study still concerns issues of the nation-state. Given developments in the studies of globalization and interculturalism, comparative literature, already representing a wider study than the single-language nation-state approach, may be well suited to move away from the paradigm of the nation-state. Joseph Hankinson's stress on comparison's 'affiliative' potential is one recent effort in this direction. While in

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2394-496: The modern university in Europe begins in the eighteenth century. Initially, English studies comprised a wide variety of content: the practice of oratory, the study of rhetoric and grammar, the composition of poetry, and the appreciation of literature (mostly by authors from England, since American literature and language study was only added in the twentieth century). In Germany and several other European countries, English philology ,

2451-413: The necessity of a more vocational approach is becoming ever more evident". Reacting to the French School, postwar scholars, collectively termed the "American School", sought to return the field to matters more directly concerned with literary criticism , de-emphasising the detective work and detailed historical research that the French School had demanded. The American School was more closely aligned with

2508-673: The original internationalist visions of Goethe and Posnett (arguably reflecting the postwar desire for international cooperation), looking for examples of universal human truths based on the literary archetypes that appeared throughout literatures from all times and places. Prior to the advent of the American School, the scope of comparative literature in the West was typically limited to the literatures of Western Europe and Anglo-America, predominantly literature in English , German and French literature , with occasional forays into Italian literature (primarily for Dante ) and Spanish literature (primarily for Miguel de Cervantes ). One monument to

2565-463: The other arts (music, painting, dance, film, etc.), and across disciplines (literature and psychology, philosophy, science, history, architecture, sociology, politics, etc.). Defined most broadly, comparative literature is the study of "literature without borders". Scholarship in comparative literature includes, for example, studying literacy and social status in the Americas, medieval epic and romance,

2622-492: The past, an academic degree in English usually meant an intensive study of British and American literary masterpieces. Now, however, an English Major encompasses a much broader range of topics which stretch over multiple disciplines. While the requirements for an English Major vary from university to university, most English departments emphasize three core skills: analyzing texts (a process which requires logic and reflective analysis), creativity and imagination with regard to

2679-556: The production of good writing, including a good understanding of the rhetorical situation ; and an understanding of different cultures , civilizations , and literary styles from various time periods. Graduates with English degrees develop critical thinking skills essential to a number of career fields they pursue after graduation. Such careers that graduates pursue can include, but are not limited to, writing , editing , publishing , teaching , research , advertising , public relations , law , and finance . An English degree opens

2736-409: The relation between literature, broadly defined, and other spheres of human activity, including history , politics , philosophy , art , and science . Unlike other forms of literary study, comparative literature places its emphasis on the interdisciplinary analysis of social and cultural production within the " economy , political dynamics, cultural movements, historical shifts, religious differences,

2793-446: The selection of texts are all widely-debated subjects within the English studies field. Another unifying commonality is that this engagement with the text will produce a wide variety of skills, which can translate into many different careers. See also Literature and linguistics , along with List of academic disciplines Some fields may cover works in languages other than English. The works studied in these fields only fall within

2850-773: The studies of the English language are integrated into regular curriculum. English education is so deeply embedded that Europe as a whole has 91% of secondary school students taking courses in English. This rate goes as high as 100% in Denmark , Sweden , Germany , Italy , Malta , North Macedonia , Slovenia , Liechtenstein , and Bosnia and Herzegovina . Furthermore, every European country (except Belgium ) have at least one test administered nationally to assess English proficiencies of its students. Most British children take English Language and English Literature as GCSE / National 5 or subjects, and many go on to study these at A Level / Higher and Advanced Higher . Along with what

2907-793: The study of English grammar. English studies in secondary-schools vary depending on what country they are taught in. Further, English studies will differ between institutions within a country, as each school will have different teaching methods and curriculum. However, all countries share commonalities in their instruction via the teaching of literature analysis, reading comprehension , composition, and language arts, as well as writing skills. These skills are then expanded and built upon in post-secondary institutions. Students in high school have specific course requirements they must meet before they can graduate. In regards to English studies, students must take four full credits in English, one in each grade level. As well, Ontario high school students must also pass

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2964-399: The study of texts produced in non-English languages takes place in other departments, such as departments of foreign language or comparative literature . English studies is taught in a wide variety of manners, but one unifying commonality is that students engage with an English-language text in a critical manner. However, the methods of teaching a text, the manner of engaging with a text, and

3021-425: The subject appear on their results certificates. Entry 1, Entry 2 and Entry 3 are broadly equivalent to National Curriculum Levels 1, 2 and 3 respectively. When converting qualifications to school attainment points, Entry 1 is worth 10 points, Entry 2 is worth 12 and Entry 3 is worth 14. This compares to 16 points for GCSE Grade G (the lowest GCSE pass) and 22 points for GCSE Grade F. The Entry Level Certificate

3078-573: The then young University of Konstanz , and from the US René Wellek , Geoffrey Hartman and Peter Demetz (all at Yale), along with the liberal publicist Lionel Trilling . The names of these visiting scholars, who form a programmatic network and a methodological canon, epitomize Szondi's conception of comparative literature. However, German comparatists working in East Germany were not invited, nor were recognized colleagues from France or

3135-460: The urban environment, international relations, public policy , and the sciences". Students and instructors in the field, usually called "comparatists", have traditionally been proficient in several languages and acquainted with the literary traditions, literary criticism , and major literary texts of those languages. Many of the newer sub-fields, however, are more influenced by critical theory and literary theory , stressing theoretical acumen and

3192-482: The virtues of the classics . See also O Level . In China, their school curriculum is more focused on drilling and multiple questions, rather than students understanding the language authentically. This is one method on how a preparatory English program in China teaches their international students. In Japan, there is another form of teaching called Task-supported language teaching (TSLT) that focuses on English used as

3249-528: Was launched as the Certificate of Achievement (Certificate of Educational Achievement if offered by WJEC) in September 1996, with the first awards being made in 1998. The grades were originally known as Distinction (now Entry 3), Merit (Entry 2) and Pass (Entry 1). The name Entry Level Certificate was adopted from the 2001 award onwards. English studies English studies (or simply, English )

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