49-888: The Epipalaeolithic Near East designates the Epipalaeolithic ("Final Old Stone Age", also known as Mesolithic ) in the prehistory of the Near East . It is the period after the Upper Palaeolithic and before the Neolithic , between approximately 20,000 and 10,000 years Before Present (BP). The people of the Epipalaeolithic were nomadic hunter-gatherers who generally lived in small, seasonal camps rather than permanent villages. They made sophisticated stone tools using microliths —small, finely-produced blades that were hafted in wooden implements. These are
98-509: A great impact of the paleolithic populations at the end of the Ice Age, creating post-glacial cultures such as the Azilian , Sauveterrian , Tardenoisian , and Maglemosian . In the past, French archaeologists had a general tendency to prefer the term "Epipaleolithic" to "Mesolithic", even for Western Europe. Where "Epipaleolithic" is still used for Europe, it is generally for areas close to
147-400: A great impact of the paleolithic populations at the end of the Ice Age, creating post-glacial cultures such as the Azilian , Sauveterrian , Tardenoisian , and Maglemosian . In the past, French archaeologists had a general tendency to prefer the term "Epipaleolithic" to "Mesolithic", even for Western Europe. Where "Epipaleolithic" is still used for Europe, it is generally for areas close to
196-603: A natural evolutionary development – a progressive transformation from Paleolithic to Neolithic. In reality, the final phase of the Capsian , the Tardenoisian , the Azilian and the northern Maglemose industries are the posthumous descendants of the Palaeolithic ;... This early history of the term introduced the ambiguity and degree of confusion which has continued to surround its use, at least as relates to
245-421: A natural evolutionary development – a progressive transformation from Paleolithic to Neolithic. In reality, the final phase of the Capsian , the Tardenoisian , the Azilian and the northern Maglemose industries are the posthumous descendants of the Palaeolithic ... This early history of the term introduced the ambiguity and degree of confusion which has continued to surround its use, at least as relates to
294-614: A period of transition. The Levant became more arid and the forest vegetation retreated, to be replaced by steppe . The cool and dry period ended at the beginning of Mesolithic 1. The hunter-gatherers of the Aurignacian would have had to modify their way of living and their pattern of settlement to adapt to the changing conditions. The crystallization of these new patterns resulted in Mesolithic 1. The people developed new types of settlements and new stone industries. The inhabitants of
343-511: A small Mesolithic 1 site in the Levant left little more than their chipped stone tools behind. The industry was of small tools made of bladelets struck off single-platform cores. Besides bladelets, burins and end- scrapers have been found. A few bone tools and some ground stones have also been found. These so-called Mesolithic sites of Asia are far less numerous than those of the Neolithic, and
392-827: Is also called the Natufian culture . This period is characterized by the early rise of agriculture , which later emerged more fully in the Neolithic period. Radiocarbon dating places the Natufian culture between 12,500 and 9500 BCE, just before the end of the Pleistocene . This period is characterised by the beginning of agriculture. The Natufian culture is commonly split into two subperiods: Early Natufian (12,500–10,800 BCE) (Christopher Delage gives c. 13,000–11,500 BP uncalibrated, equivalent to c. 13,700–11,500 BCE) and Late Natufian (10,800–9500 BCE). The Late Natufian most likely occurred in tandem with
441-856: The Kebaran culture, c. 20,000 to 14,500 years ago, the Middle Epipalaeolithic is the Geometric Kebaran or late phase of the Kebaran , and the Late Epipalaeolithic to the Natufian , 14,500–11,500 BP. The Natufian overlaps with the incipient Neolithic Revolution , the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A . The Early Epipalaeolithic, also known as Kebaran , lasted from 20,000 to 12,150 BP. It followed
490-417: The Epipalaeolithic . The appearance of the Kebaran culture, of microlithic type, implies a significant rupture in the cultural continuity of Levantine Upper Paleolithic. The Kebaran culture, with its use of microliths, is associated also with the use of the bow and arrow and the domestication of the dog. The Kebaran is also characterised by the earliest collecting and processing of wild cereals, known due to
539-454: The Geometric Kebaran , a Levantine industry associated with the Middle Epipalaeolithic. The excavators of the site, therefore, proposed that northern Arabia was colonised by foragers from the Levant around 15,000 years ago. These groups may then have been cut off by the drying climate and retreated to refugia like the Jubbah palaeolake. The Epipalaeolithic is best understood when discussing
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#1732765525366588-574: The Mediterranean , as with the Azilian industry. "Epipalaeolithic" stresses the continuity with the Upper Paleolithic. Alfonso Moure says in this respect: In the language of Prehistorical Archaeology, the most extended trend is to use the term "Epipaleolithic" for the industrial complexes of the post-glacial hunter-gatherer groups. Inversely, those that are in transitional ways towards artificial production of food are inscribed in
637-444: The Mediterranean , as with the Azilian industry. "Epipalaeolithic" stresses the continuity with the Upper Paleolithic. Alfonso Moure says in this respect: In the language of Prehistorical Archaeology, the most extended trend is to use the term "Epipaleolithic" for the industrial complexes of the post-glacial hunter-gatherer groups. Inversely, those that are in transitional ways towards artificial production of food are inscribed in
686-500: The Natufian , and 12,000 years before the establishment of sedentary farming communities in the Near East during the Neolithic Revolution . Furthermore, the new finds accord well with evidence for the earliest ever cereal cultivation at the site, and for the use of stone-made grinding implements. Evidence for symbolic behavior of Late Pleistocene foragers in the Levant has been found in engraved limestone plaquettes from
735-613: The Younger Dryas . The following period is often called the Pre-Pottery Neolithic . Fertile Crescent : Europe : Africa : Siberia : Until recently, it was thought that the Arabian Peninsula was too arid and inhospitable for human settlement in the Late Pleistocene. The earliest known sites belonged to the early Neolithic, c. 9000 to 8000 BP, and it was supposed that people were able to recolonise
784-558: The "Mesolithic". In Europe, the Epipalaeolithic may be regarded as a period preceding the Early Mesolithic, or as locally constituting at least a part of it. Other authors treat the Epipalaeolithic as part of the Late Palaeolithic; the culture in southern Portugal between about 10,500 to 8,500 years ago is "variously labelled as 'Terminal Magdalenian' and 'Epipalaeolithic ' ". The different usages often reflect
833-423: The "Mesolithic". In Europe, the Epipalaeolithic may be regarded as a period preceding the Early Mesolithic, or as locally constituting at least a part of it. Other authors treat the Epipalaeolithic as part of the Late Palaeolithic; the culture in southern Portugal between about 10,500 to 8,500 years ago is "variously labelled as 'Terminal Magdalenian' and 'Epipalaeolithic ' ". The different usages often reflect
882-518: The "final Upper Palaeolithic industries occurring at the end of the final glaciation which appear to merge technologically into the Mesolithic ". The period is generally dated from c. 20,000 BP to 10,000 BP in the Levant, but later in Europe. If used as a synonym or equivalent for Mesolithic in Europe, it might end at about c. 5,000 BP or even later. In
931-407: The "final Upper Palaeolithic industries occurring at the end of the final glaciation which appear to merge technologically into the Mesolithic ". The period is generally dated from c. 20,000 BP to 10,000 BP in the Levant, but later in Europe. If used as a synonym or equivalent for Mesolithic in Europe, it might end at about c. 5,000 BP or even later. In
980-582: The Epipalaeolithic open-air site Ein Qashish South in the Jezreel Valley, Palestine. The engravings were uncovered in Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran deposits (ca. 23,000 and ca. 16,500 BP), and include the image of a bird, the first figurative representation known so far from a pre-Natufian Epipalaeolithic site, together with geometric motifs such as chevrons, cross-hatchings, and ladders. Some of
1029-656: The Epipaleolithic, defining it as follows: With Epipaleolithic I mean the period during the early days that followed the age of the reindeer, the one that retained Paleolithic customs. This period has two stages in Scandinavia, that of Maglemose and that of Kunda. ( Par époque épipaléolithique j'entends la période qui, pendant les premiers temps qui ont suivi l'âge du Renne, conserve les coutumes paléolithiques. Cette période présente deux étapes en Scandinavie, celle de Maglemose et de Kunda. ) Stjerna made no mention of
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#17327655253661078-532: The Epipaleolithic, defining it as follows: With Epipaleolithic I mean the period during the early days that followed the age of the reindeer, the one that retained Paleolithic customs. This period has two stages in Scandinavia, that of Maglemose and that of Kunda. ( Par époque épipaléolithique j'entends la période qui, pendant les premiers temps qui ont suivi l'âge du Renne, conserve les coutumes paléolithiques. Cette période présente deux étapes en Scandinavie, celle de Maglemose et de Kunda. ) Stjerna made no mention of
1127-579: The Levant, the period may be subdivided into Early, Middle and Late Epipaleolithic, the last also being the Natufian . The preceding final Upper Paleolithic period is the Kebaran or "Upper Paleolithic Stage VI". Epipalaeolithic hunter-gatherers , generally nomadic , made relatively advanced tools from small flint or obsidian blades, known as microliths , that were hafted in wooden implements. There are settlements with "flimsy structures", probably not permanently occupied except at some rich sites, but used and returned to seasonally. In describing
1176-579: The Levant, the period may be subdivided into Early, Middle and Late Epipaleolithic, the last also being the Natufian . The preceding final Upper Paleolithic period is the Kebaran or "Upper Paleolithic Stage VI". Epipalaeolithic hunter-gatherers , generally nomadic , made relatively advanced tools from small flint or obsidian blades, known as microliths , that were hafted in wooden implements. There are settlements with "flimsy structures", probably not permanently occupied except at some rich sites, but used and returned to seasonally. In describing
1225-585: The Mesolithic, and it is unclear if he intended his terms to replace that. His new terms were soon adopted by the German Hugo Obermaier , who in 1916 used them in El Hombre fósil (translated into English in 1924) as part of an attack on the concept of the Mesolithic, which he insisted was a period of "transition" and an "interim" rather than "transformation": But in my opinion this term is not justified, as it would be if these phases presented
1274-456: The Mesolithic, and it is unclear if he intended his terms to replace that. His new terms were soon adopted by the German Hugo Obermaier , who in 1916 used them in El Hombre fósil (translated into English in 1924) as part of an attack on the concept of the Mesolithic, which he insisted was a period of "transition" and an "interim" rather than "transformation": But in my opinion this term is not justified, as it would be if these phases presented
1323-614: The Upper Paleolithic Levantine Aurignacian (formerly called Antelian ) period throughout the Levant. By the end of the Levantine Aurignacian, gradual changes took place in stone industries. Small stone tools called microliths and retouched bladelets can be found for the first time. The microliths of this culture period differ markedly from the Aurignacian artifacts. By 18,000 BP the climate and environment had changed, starting
1372-529: The archaeology of Europe. Epipalaeolithic In archaeology, the Epipalaeolithic or Epipaleolithic (sometimes Epi-paleolithic etc.) is a period occurring between the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic during the Stone Age . Mesolithic also falls between these two periods, and the two are sometimes confused or used as synonyms. More often, they are distinct, referring to approximately
1421-558: The archeological remains are very poor. The type site is Kebara Cave south of Haifa . The Kebaran was characterized by small, geometric microliths . The people were thought to lack the specialized grinders and pounders found in later Near Eastern cultures. The Kebaran is preceded by the Athlitian phase of the Levantine Aurignacian (formerly called Antelian ) and followed by the proto-agrarian Natufian culture of
1470-523: The coast, the rather small number of seashells found (7 genera) and the piercing of many, suggests these may have been collected as ornaments rather than food. However, the period seems to be marked by an increase in plant foods and a decrease in meat-eating. Over 40 plant species have been found by analysing one site in the Jordan Valley , and some grains were processed and baked. Stones with evidence of grinding have been found. These were most likely
1519-759: The coming of 'true' Mesolithic technologies a few centuries later". The concept of the "Epipalaeolithic" arrived several decades after the main components of the three-age system , the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic. It was first proposed in 1910 by the Swedish archaeologist, Knut Stjerna , his initial example being a culture or sub-culture in Scandinavian archaeology, that would not be often called Epipalaeolithic today. This left stone-lined pit graves containing implements of bone, such as harpoon and javelin heads. Stjerna observed that they "persisted during
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1568-583: The coming of 'true' Mesolithic technologies a few centuries later". The concept of the "Epipalaeolithic" arrived several decades after the main components of the three-age system , the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic. It was first proposed in 1910 by the Swedish archaeologist, Knut Stjerna , his initial example being a culture or sub-culture in Scandinavian archaeology, that would not be often called Epipalaeolithic today. This left stone-lined pit graves containing implements of bone, such as harpoon and javelin heads. Stjerna observed that they "persisted during
1617-552: The degree of innovation and "economic intensification in the direction of domestication, sedentism or environmental modification" seen in the culture. If the Palaeolithic way of life continues with only adaptation to reflect changes in the types of wild food available, the culture may be called Epipalaeolithic. One writer, talking of Azilian microliths in Vasco-Cantabria talks of "some exceptions that seem to herald
1666-427: The degree of innovation and "economic intensification in the direction of domestication, sedentism or environmental modification" seen in the culture. If the Palaeolithic way of life continues with only adaptation to reflect changes in the types of wild food available, the culture may be called Epipalaeolithic. One writer, talking of Azilian microliths in Vasco-Cantabria talks of "some exceptions that seem to herald
1715-467: The engravings closely resemble roughly contemporary European finds, and may be interpreted as "systems of notations" or "artificial memory systems" related to the timing of seasonal resources and related important events for nomadic groups. Similar-looking signs and patterns are well known from the context of the local Natufian , a final Epipalaeolithic period when sedentary or semi-sedentary foragers started practicing agriculture. The Late Epipalaeolithic
1764-444: The excavation of grain-grinding tools. This was the first step towards the Neolithic Revolution . The Kebaran people are believed to have migrated seasonally, dispersing to upland environments in the summer, and gathering in caves and rock shelters near lowland lakes in the winter. This diversity of environments may be the reason for the variety of tools found in their toolkits. The Kebaran is generally thought to have been ancestral to
1813-654: The gradual retreat of glacial climatic conditions between the Last Glacial Maximum and the start of the Holocene , and it is characterised by population growth and economic intensification. The Epipalaeolithic ended with the " Neolithic Revolution " and the onset of domestication , food production , and sedentism , although archaeologists now recognise that these trends began in the Epipalaeolithic. The period may be subdivided into Early, Middle and Late Epipalaeolithic: The Early Epipalaeolithic corresponds to
1862-601: The later Natufian culture that occupied much of the same range. The earliest evidence for the use of composite cereal harvesting tools are the glossed flint blades that have been found at the site of Ohalo II , a 23,000-year-old fisher-hunter-gatherers’ camp on the shore of the Sea of Galilee , Northern Palestine. The Ohalo site is dated at the junction of the Upper Paleolithic and the Early Epipalaeolithic, and has been attributed to both periods. The wear traces on
1911-579: The main food sources throughout the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A, which introduced the widespread agricultural growing of crops. Epipalaeolithic In archaeology, the Epipalaeolithic or Epipaleolithic (sometimes Epi-paleolithic etc.) is a period occurring between the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic during the Stone Age . Mesolithic also falls between these two periods, and the two are sometimes confused or used as synonyms. More often, they are distinct, referring to approximately
1960-518: The period before the start of the Neolithic, "Epipaleolithic" is typically used for cultures in regions that were far from the glaciers of the Ice Age , so that the retreat of the glaciers made a less dramatic change to conditions. This was the case in the Levant . Conversely, the term "Mesolithic" is most likely to be used for Western Europe where climatic change and the extinction of the megafauna had
2009-412: The period before the start of the Neolithic, "Epipaleolithic" is typically used for cultures in regions that were far from the glaciers of the Ice Age , so that the retreat of the glaciers made a less dramatic change to conditions. This was the case in the Levant . Conversely, the term "Mesolithic" is most likely to be used for Western Europe where climatic change and the extinction of the megafauna had
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2058-423: The primary artifacts by which archaeologists recognise and classify Epipalaeolithic sites. The start of the Epipalaeolithic is defined by the appearance of microliths. Although this is an arbitrary boundary, the Epipalaeolithic does differ significantly from the preceding Upper Palaeolithic. Epipalaeolithic sites are more numerous, better preserved, and can be accurately radiocarbon dated . The period coincides with
2107-652: The recent Paleolithic period and also during the Protoneolithic". Here he had used a new term, "Protoneolithic", which was according to him to be applied to the Danish kitchen-middens . Stjerna also said that the eastern culture "is attached to the Paleolithic civilization" ( "se trouve rattachée à la civilisation paléolithique" ). However, it was not intermediary and of its intermediates he said "we cannot discuss them here" ( "nous ne pouvons pas examiner ici "). This "attached" and non-transitional culture he chose to call
2156-536: The recent Paleolithic period and also during the Protoneolithic". Here he had used a new term, "Protoneolithic", which was according to him to be applied to the Danish kitchen-middens . Stjerna also said that the eastern culture "is attached to the Paleolithic civilization" ( "se trouve rattachée à la civilisation paléolithique" ). However, it was not intermediary and of its intermediates he said "we cannot discuss them here" ( "nous ne pouvons pas examiner ici "). This "attached" and non-transitional culture he chose to call
2205-473: The region then due to the wetter climate of the early Holocene. However, in 2014, archaeologists working in the southern Nefud desert discovered an Epipalaeolithic site dating to between 12,000 and 10,000 BP. The site is located in the Jubbah basin, a palaeolake which retained water in the otherwise dry conditions of the Terminal Pleistocene. The stone tools found bore a close resemblance to
2254-558: The same period of time in different geographic areas. Epipaleolithic always includes this period in the Levant and, often, the rest of the Near East . It sometimes includes parts of Southeast Europe , where Mesolithic is much more commonly used. Mesolithic very rarely includes the Levant or the Near East ; in Europe , Epipalaeolithic is used, though not very often, to refer to the early Mesolithic. The Epipalaeolithic has been defined as
2303-450: The same period of time in different geographic areas. Epipaleolithic always includes this period in the Levant and, often, the rest of the Near East . It sometimes includes parts of Southeast Europe , where Mesolithic is much more commonly used. Mesolithic very rarely includes the Levant or the Near East ; in Europe , Epipalaeolithic is used, though not very often, to refer to the early Mesolithic. The Epipalaeolithic has been defined as
2352-524: The southern Levant , as the period is well documented due to good preservation at the sites, at least of animal remains. The most prevalent animal food sources in the Levant during this period were: deer, gazelle, and ibex of various species, and smaller animals including birds, lizards, foxes, tortoises, and hares. Less common were aurochs , wild equids , wild boar, wild cattle, and hartebeest . At Neve David near Haifa , 15 mammal species were found, and two reptile species. Despite then being very close to
2401-402: The tools indicate that these were used for harvesting near-ripe, semi-green wild cereals, shortly before grains ripen enough to disperse naturally. The study shows that the tools were not used intensively, and they reflect two harvesting modes: flint knives held by hand and inserts hafted into a handle. The finds reveal the existence of cereal harvesting techniques and tools some 8,000 years before
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