Coastal defence (or defense ) and coastal fortification are measures taken to provide protection against military attack at or near a coastline (or other shoreline ), for example, fortifications and coastal artillery . Because an invading enemy normally requires a port or harbour to sustain operations, such defences are usually concentrated around such facilities, or places where such facilities could be constructed. Coastal artillery fortifications generally followed the development of land fortifications, usually incorporating land defences; sometimes separate land defence forts were built to protect coastal forts. Through the middle 19th century, coastal forts could be bastion forts , star forts , polygonal forts , or sea forts, the first three types often with detached gun batteries called "water batteries". Coastal defence weapons throughout history were heavy naval guns or weapons based on them, often supplemented by lighter weapons. In the late 19th century separate batteries of coastal artillery replaced forts in some countries; in some areas these became widely separated geographically through the mid-20th century as weapon ranges increased. The amount of landward defence provided began to vary by country from the late 19th century; by 1900 new US forts almost totally neglected these defences. Booms were also usually part of a protected harbor's defences. In the middle 19th century underwater minefields and later controlled mines were often used, or stored in peacetime to be available in wartime. With the rise of the submarine threat at the beginning of the 20th century, anti-submarine nets were used extensively, usually added to boom defences, with major warships often being equipped with them (to allow rapid deployment once the ship was anchored or moored) through early World War I. In World War I railway artillery emerged and soon became part of coastal artillery in some countries; with railway artillery in coast defence some type of revolving mount had to be provided to allow tracking of fast-moving targets.
59-589: Eastbourne Redoubt is a circular coastal defence fort at Eastbourne , East Sussex , on the south coast of England . It was built in 1805 as part of the British anti-invasion preparations during the Napoleonic Wars . The building is now owned by the local authority and is open to the public. The redoubt is a circular structure, measuring 224 feet (68 metres) in diameter and is built almost entirely of brick with some granite facing. The lower tier
118-552: A brick counterscarp wall set a little lower than the level of the parapet of the gun platform so as to protect the scarp wall from enemy fire. Originally armed with ten 24-pounder cannon , the Redoubt was remodelled in order to accommodate increasingly heavy guns, as technology and the perceived threat changed. In 1861–2, work was carried out to accommodate 68-pounder cannon, and the emplacements were strengthened (by adding granite facing) to withstand improved enemy artillery. Only
177-414: A concrete pontoon barge on which stood two cylindrical towers on top of which was the gun platform mounting. They were laid down in dry dock and assembled as complete units. They were then fitted out before being towed out and sunk onto their sand bank positions in 1942. The other type consisted of seven interconnected steel platforms built on stilts. Five platforms carried guns arranged in a semicircle around
236-601: A critical component of the defence, and smaller guns were also employed to protect the mine fields from minesweeping vessels . Defences of a given harbor were initially designated artillery districts, redesignated as coast defense commands in 1913 and as harbor defense commands in 1924. In 1901 the Artillery Corps was divided into field artillery and coast artillery units, and in 1907 the United States Army Coast Artillery Corps
295-399: A decade later in 1872, three of the emplacements were altered to take enormous 12 ton RML (rifled muzzle loading) guns. In 1903, three emplacements received 12-pounder QF (quick firing) guns. Despite this ongoing modernisation, the Redoubt never fired a shot in anger . It is also probable that its strategic importance declined towards the end of the 19th century with the construction of
354-644: A detention centre for British troops awaiting trial. Examples of the graffiti left by the soldiers can still be seen in some of the rooms. Following World War II the Redoubt was used by the British Civil Defence organisation, who used it until they were disbanded. That was the end of the Redoubt's military service. Following a listing as an Ancient Monument, the restoration of the Harwich Redoubt began in July 1969 and has continued until
413-399: A single course. Cavities within the structure were filled with shingle. The redoubt was initially armed with 24-pounder guns on traversing carriages ; although there are embrasures for 11 guns, only 10 appear to have been mounted. These were replaced shortly afterwards by longer ranged 36-pounder guns, after fears the redoubt could be bombarded at a distance by heavier French weapons. By
472-522: A venue for leisure activities. The only part of the plan to be implemented was in 1934; the construction of a new bandstand in the gardens just to the west of the redoubt and an associated colonnade to shelter the audience, which was built over part of the moat. During the Second World War , the army requisitioned the building to use for storage. The remaining artillery pieces were sold for scrap. In 1944, anti-aircraft guns were mounted on
531-519: Is a circular fort built in 1808 to defend the port of Harwich , Essex from Napoleonic invasion . The Harwich Society opens it to the public. The Redoubt was built between 1808 and 1810 to protect the port of Harwich against the threat of Napoleonic invasion. It was part of the scheme proposed in 1805 that included the construction of 55 Martello Towers on the East Anglian coast, although 29 were actually built. Although similar in design to
590-399: Is an L-shaped expense magazine which held a supply of ammunition for the guns to use in combat and could also be used as a shelter for the gun crews during an enemy bombardment. The low roof of these magazines forms a banquette or fire step so that the garrison could fire their muskets over the parapet in the event of an infantry attack. The parapet is also pierced by the main gate, which
649-490: Is composed of a ring of 24 casemates or vaulted chambers, which open into a central parade ground . Casemate 11 was the main magazine for the redoubt, casemate 8 was modified in the 1870s as a cook house and casemates 23 and 24 were altered in the 1880s to provide a detention room and two cells . The upper tier above the casemates forms the terreplein or gun platform, which has a tall parapet pierced by granite-faced embrasures for eleven guns . Beside each gun position
SECTION 10
#1732772522774708-521: Is on a built-up island, 400 meters (1,312 ft) from the shore, and connected to it by a causeway that high tide completely submerses. The most elaborate sea fort is Murud-Janjira , which is so extensive that one might truly call it a sea fortress. The most recent sea forts were the Maunsell Forts , which the British built during World War II as anti-aircraft platforms. One type consisted of
767-542: The Endicott Board , whose recommendations would lead to a large-scale modernization programme of harbour and coastal defences in the United States, especially the construction of well dispersed, open topped reinforced concrete emplacements protected by sloped earthworks. Many of these featured disappearing guns , which sat protected behind the walls, but could be raised to fire. Underwater mine fields were
826-881: The English Channel . The meeting, which was attended by the Prime Minister , William Pitt the Younger , agreed to adopt a revolutionary scheme to build a chain of mutually-supporting circular artillery towers along a stretch of the Channel coast where the French were thought to be most likely to land. The scheme had been devised by Captain William Henry Ford of the Royal Engineers and championed by Brigadier-General William Twiss who commanded
885-641: The First World War the British Admiralty designed eight towers code named M-N that were to be built and positioned in the Straits of Dover to protect allied merchant shipping from German U-boats . Nab Tower is still in situ. The Maunsell Forts were small fortified towers, primarily for anti-aircraft guns, built in the Thames and Mersey estuaries during the Second World War . With
944-700: The Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence . This tells the story of coastal defence along the South China coast from the Ming dynasty onwards. Taiwan has several coastal fortifications, with some, such as Fort Zeelandia or Anping Castle dating to the time of the Dutch East India Company . Others, such as Cihou Fort , Eternal Golden Castle , Hobe Fort , date more to the end of the 19th century. The Uhrshawan Battery dates primarily to
1003-592: The Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom which had been set up by Lord Palmerston to review Britain's fortifications, reported that the redoubts and Martello towers were "not an important element of security against attack". Nevertheless, by 1873, the armament had been increased to four 8 inch rifled muzzle loaders and three 110-pounder rifled breech loaders , together with two of
1062-462: The Royal Engineers . A second entrance from the ditch was created in 1957 by inserting a large doorway through the scarp wall into one of the casemates. The decision to build the redoubt was made at a conference held in Rochester on 21 October 1804, to discuss defence against Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom , preparations for which were gaining momentum on the opposite side of
1121-528: The U.S. Coast Guard would patrol the shores of the United States during the war. Some patrolled on horseback with mounted beach patrols. On 13 June 1942 Seaman 2nd Class John Cullen, patrolling the beach in Amagansett, New York , discovered the first landing of German saboteurs in Operation Pastorius . Cullen was the first American who actually came in contact with the enemy on the shores of
1180-673: The gun turrets and searchlights . The defence of its coasts was a major concern for the United States from its independence. Prior to the American Revolution many coastal fortifications already dotted the Atlantic coast, as protection from pirate raids and foreign incursions. The Revolutionary War led to the construction of many additional fortifications, mostly comprising simple earthworks erected to meet specific threats. The prospect of war with European powers in
1239-574: The 1790s led to a national programme of fortification building spanning seventy years in three phases, known as the First, Second and Third Systems. By the time of the American Civil War , advances in armour and weapons had made masonry forts obsolete, and the combatants discovered that their steamships and ironclad warships could penetrate Third System defences with acceptable losses. In 1885 US President Grover Cleveland appointed
SECTION 20
#17327725227741298-521: The 1860 Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom , following concerns about the strength of the French Navy. In 1865 Lieutenant Arthur Campbell Walker , of the School of Musketry advocated the use of armoured trains on "an iron high-road running parallel with that other 'silent highway', the source of all our greatness, the ocean, our time-honoured 'moat and circumvallation'" During
1357-608: The Castrum Maris as Fort Saint Angelo . In the 1550s, Fort Saint Elmo and Fort Saint Michael were built, and walls surrounded the coastal cities of Birgu and Senglea . In 1565, the Great Siege of Malta reduced many of these coastal fortifications to rubble, but after the siege they were rebuilt. The fortified city of Valletta was built on the Sciberras Peninsula, and further modifications were made to
1416-593: The Pacific coast. In 1939–40 the threat of war in Europe prompted larger appropriations and the resumption of work along the Atlantic coast. Under a major program developed in the wake of the Fall of France in 1940, a near-total replacement of previous coast defenses was implemented, centered on 16-inch guns in new casemated batteries. These were supplemented by 6-inch and 90 mm guns , also in new installations. In WW2
1475-567: The Royal Engineer Southern District. The original plan called for 83 Martello towers , each mounting a single heavy gun, at intervals along the coast and three 11-gun towers at Sea Houses (Eastbourne), Rye Harbour and Dymchurch . In the event, 74 Martello Towers were actually built and plans for the 11-gun tower at Rye were abandoned. The 11-gun towers, which came to be known as "circular forts" or "grand redoubts", were intended to act as barracks and stores depots for
1534-659: The Spanish founded the "city-fort" of Ancud in 1768 and separated Chiloé from the Captaincy General of Chile into a direct dependency of the Viceroyalty of Peru. China first established formal coastal defences during the early Ming dynasty (14th century) to protect against attacks by pirates ( wokou ). Coastal defences were maintained through both the Ming dynasty and the Qing dynasty that followed, protecting
1593-678: The Sussex Combined Services military collection. The fortress has an events programme, including films, lectures, tours, stargazing and ghost nights. It encourages families to visit, has permanent children's area and through the school holidays runs daily events to keep children entertained. 50°46′26″N 0°18′02″E / 50.773974°N 0.300437°E / 50.773974; 0.300437 Coastal defence and fortification In littoral warfare , coastal defence counteracts naval offence, such as naval artillery , naval infantry ( marines ), or both. Rather than
1652-531: The United States during the war and his report led to the capture of the German sabotage team. For this, Cullen received the Legion of Merit . The walls around coastal cities, such as Southampton , had evolved from simpler Norman fortifications by the start of the 13th century. Later, King Edward I was a prolific castle builder and sites such as Conwy Castle , built 1283 to 1289, defend river approaches as well as
1711-506: The advent of missile technology coastal forts became obsolete. Britain's coastal forts were therefore decommissioned in 1956 and the units manning them disbanded. Russia Federation developed A-222E Bereg-E 130mm coastal mobile artillery system , K-300P Bastion-P coastal defence system and Bal-E coastal missile complex with Kh-35 /Kh-35E missiles. Harwich Redoubt 51°56′31″N 1°17′20″E / 51.9419°N 1.2889°E / 51.9419; 1.2889 Harwich Redoubt
1770-400: The beach assault of modern amphibious operations , seaborne assaults of the classical and medieval age more often took the form of coastal raiders sailing up river and landing well inland of the coast. Prior to the invention of naval artillery that could sink hostile ships, the most that coastal defence could do was act as an early warning system, that could alert local naval or ground forces of
1829-659: The coast against pirates, and against the Portuguese and other European powers that sought to impose their will on China. Subsequently, the European powers built their own coastal defences to protect the various colonial enclaves that they established along the Chinese coast. One such, a fort built by the British commanding the Lei Yue Mun channel between Hong Kong Island and the mainland, has been converted into
Eastbourne Redoubt - Misplaced Pages Continue
1888-554: The coast by barge from London for the project and others were made locally. Work started on 16 April 1805, but a report by Brigadier-General Twiss to the Board of Ordnance in May 1808 recommended that the money to settle Hobson's account be withheld until all the work was completed. The structure was built on a raft of compacted chalk laid directly onto the natural shingle . It was constructed almost entirely of brick, over 50,000 being used in
1947-471: The coast, sea forts are not. Instead, they are off the coast on islands, artificial islands , or are specially built structures. Some sea forts, such as Fort Denison or Fort Sumter , are within harbours in proximity to the coast, but most are at some distance off the coast. Some, such as for example Bréhon Tower or Fort Drum completely occupy small islands; others, such as Flakfortet and Pampus , are on artificial islands built up on shoals. Fort Louvois
2006-579: The coastline. The first of these was Sliema Point Battery , built to protect the northern approach to the Grand Harbour. A chain of fortifications, including Fort Delimara and Fort Benghisa , was also built to protect Marsaxlokk Harbour. From 1935 to the 1940s, the British built many pillboxes in Malta for defence in case of an Italian invasion. The coastline of New Zealand was fortified in two main waves. The first wave occurred around 1885 and
2065-546: The coasts of Malta and Gozo. Many of these have been destroyed, but a few examples still survive. After the British took Malta in 1800, they modified the Order's defences in the harbour area to keep up with new technology. Malta itself, Gibraltar , Bermuda , and Halifax, Nova Scotia were designated Imperial fortresses . The Corradino Lines were built in the 1870s to protect the Grand Harbour from landward attacks. Between 1872 and 1912, many forts and batteries were built around
2124-641: The construction of the Valdivian Fort System that begun in 1645. As consequence of the Seven Years' War the Valdivian Fort System was updated and reinforced from 1764 onwards. Other vulnerable localities of colonial Chile such as Chiloé Archipelago , Concepción , Juan Fernández Islands and Valparaíso were also made ready for an eventual English attack. Inspired in the recommendations of former governor Santa María
2183-419: The ditch is traversed by five caponiers or covered galleries with loopholes that allowed the defenders to fire at any attackers who had reached that point. These are unique in any of the circular redoubts and are thought to have been added in the mid-19th century. Access to the main gate of the redoubt is across a wooden drop bridge , which is a modern reconstruction of the original, built in 2003 with help from
2242-532: The earlier Dymchurch Redoubt and Eastbourne Redoubt , Harwich Redoubt differed in being designed to mount ten, rather than eleven guns. The redoubt was built on a hilltop just outside the town, giving an unrestricted field of fire across the estuaries of the River Stour and the River Orwell which form the entrance to the harbour, and allowed interlocking fire with the guns of Landguard Fort on
2301-583: The early 17th century, the Order began to strengthen the coastal fortifications outside the harbour area, by building watchtowers . The first of these was Garzes Tower , which was built in 1605. The Wignacourt , Lascaris and De Redin towers were built over the course of the 17th century. The last coastal watchtower to be built was Isopu Tower in 1667. Between 1605 and 1667, a total of 31 towers were built, of which 22 survive today (with another 3 in ruins). From 1714 onwards, about 52 batteries and redoubts , along with several entrenchments, were built around
2360-720: The first half of the 19th century. It actually underwent bombardment during the Sino-French War . The islands of Malta , Gozo and Comino all have some form of coastal fortification. The area around the Grand Harbour was possibly first fortified during Arab rule, and by the 13th century, a castle known as the Castrum Maris was built in Birgu to protect the harbour. The Maltese islands were given to Order of Saint John in 1530, who settled in Birgu and rebuilt
2419-578: The fortifications over the years. The harbour area was strengthened even more by the building of the Floriana Lines , Santa Margherita Lines , Cottonera Lines and Fort Ricasoli in the 17th century and Fort Manoel and Fort Tigné in the nearby Marsamxett Harbour in the 18th century. The Order also built Fort Chambray near Mġarr Harbour in Gozo. In the early 15th century, a number of watch posts had been established around Malta's coastline. In
Eastbourne Redoubt - Misplaced Pages Continue
2478-541: The gun platforms to counter passing V-1 flying bombs . In 1957, the redoubt was leased to an entrepreneur named Benjamin White, who created a model village on the parade ground and constructed a new entrance from the moat, with a staircase that gives access from the promenade. The bandstand colonnade was converted into the Blue Grotto Aquarium , which was captured in 3D by VistaScreen . The model village
2537-618: The impending attack. For example, in the late Roman period the Saxon Shore was a system of forts at the mouths of navigable rivers, and watch towers along the coast of Britannia and Gaul . Later in Anglo-Saxon Wessex , protection against Viking raiders took the form of coast watchers whose duty was to alert the local militia, the navy, which would attempt to intercept the raider's ships, or failing that, to destroy them after they had beached. Against smaller raiding forces,
2596-481: The more powerful Beacon Hill Battery just to the south. In the 1920s the area around the Redoubt - previously kept clear to provide fields of fire - was bought by the Town Council. This land is used for allotments . The Redoubt itself was allowed to fall into disrepair. The Redoubt was briefly taken back into military service during World War II , when it was used as an anti-aircraft site and it also served as
2655-411: The older 68-pounders. Various improvements were made to the living conditions in the barracks including the addition of a cookhouse in the 1870s and a latrine outside the main gate in the 1880s. During the First World War the military police used the redoubt as a headquarters and temporary gaol . Following this, Eastbourne Borough Council purchased the redoubt for £150 with the plan to turn it into
2714-411: The opposite shore. The construction was supervised by Major Alexander Bryce of the Royal Engineers at an estimated cost of £32,000. Harwich Redoubt is built mainly from brick with stone details, and is circular in shape, about 61 metres (200 ft) in diameter, with a central parade ground 26 metres (85 ft) across. The ground floor consists of 18 casemates or vaulted chambers radiating from
2773-446: The parade ground. These casemates were used as barrack accommodation, stores, ablutions and latrines, and a cookhouse. Two of them form the magazine and shell store; hoists lifted ammunition from the lower level to the gun emplacements, which are on a terreplein or gun platform formed by the roof of the casemates, which has ten embrasures for cannon. The ditch is some 16 metres (52 ft) wide and 7 metres (23 ft) deep, with
2832-471: The present day. When restoration began, one of the 9-inch 12 ton RML guns was discovered buried in the (dry) moat - it had been pushed in when it became obsolete , as they were too large and solidly constructed to be broken up for scrap . Currently open as a museum , the Redoubt is the largest ancient monument in the UK being restored by a voluntary group. In addition to some of the original guns that armed
2891-445: The redoubt was as a barracks rather than a fortress, with troops being stationed there for a few weeks at a time while using nearby training facilities. Although it was intended for 350 men, it is thought unlikely that more than 200 could be accommodated at any one time. Despite this, the armament of the fort was progressively improved throughout the century. In 1853, the 36-pounders were replaced by 68-pounder smoothbore guns . In 1859,
2950-522: The rest of the Martello chain, as well as formidable fortresses in their own right. A third redoubt was later constructed at Harwich in Essex to support the Martello chain built to defend the east coast; although broadly similar, it differs in some details from the south coast redoubts. The contract to build the redoubt at Eastbourne was awarded to William Hobson. Five million bricks were brought around
3009-528: The sixth platform, which contained the control centre and accommodation. The seventh platform, set further out than the gun towers, was the searchlight tower. In Colonial times the Spanish Empire diverted significant resources to fortify the Chilean coast as consequence of Dutch and English raids. The Dutch occupation of Valdivia in 1643 caused great alarm among Spanish authorities and triggered
SECTION 50
#17327725227743068-466: The surrounding land. Built 1539 to 1544, the Device Forts are a series of artillery fortifications built for Henry VIII to defend the southern coast of England. Between 1804 and 1812 the British authorities built a chain of towers known as Martello Towers to defend the south and east coast of England , Ireland, Jersey and Guernsey against possible invasion from France . This type of tower
3127-470: The threat of losing their ships, and their way home with their loot, was often enough to force them to curtail their attack. In addition there was a system of fortified towns , burghs , that were positioned at choke points along navigable rivers to prevent raiders from sailing inland. Sea forts are completely surrounded by water – if not permanently, then at least at high tide (i.e. they are tidal islands ). Unlike most coastal fortifications, which are on
3186-406: The time that the redoubt had been fully armed and garrisoned, the likelihood of an invasion had become very remote and the guns were only fired in anger once; in 1812 two shots were fired at a passing French warship but missed. By the 1830s, Europe was experiencing a long peaceful period and the garrison consisted of only seven gunners and a gate keeper, together with their families. The main role of
3245-585: Was a response to fears of an attack by Russia . The second wave occurred during World War II and was due to fears of invasion by the Japanese . The fortifications were built from British designs adapted to New Zealand conditions. These installations typically included gun emplacements, pill boxes, fire command or observation posts , camouflage strategies, underground bunkers , sometimes with interconnected tunnels, containing magazines , supply and plotting rooms and protected engine rooms supplying power to
3304-724: Was also used elsewhere in the British Empire and in the United States. In the early Victorian era, Alderney was strongly fortified to provide a massive anchorage for the British Navy before France became an ally of Britain in the Crimean War , even so plans changed slowly and the Palmerston Forts , a group of forts and associated structures were built during the Victorian period on the recommendations of
3363-435: Was created to operate these defences. The development of military aviation rendered these open topped emplacements vulnerable to air attack. Therefore, the next, and last, generation of coastal artillery was mounted under thick concrete shields covered with vegetation to make them virtually invisible from above. In anticipation of a conflict with Japan , most of the limited funds available between 1933 and 1938 were spent on
3422-410: Was originally the only access to the redoubt. The redoubt is surrounded by a ditch or dry moat which is 30 feet (9 metres) from the top of the parapet and 25 feet (7 metres) wide. On the far side of the moat, a glacis or earth ramp slopes away to ground level. Both the moat and the glacis have been removed on the seaward side during construction of a sea wall and promenade in 1890. The floor of
3481-546: Was vandalised and then removed in the 1970s, and the aquarium closed in 1996. The redoubt and cafe is open to the public between April and mid-November, every day from 10 am to 5 pm. Access to the gun platform and the parade ground is free. There is an admission charge to visit the inside of the fortress, which includes the regimental museums of the Queen's Royal Irish Hussars and the Royal Sussex Regiment , with
#773226