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100-500: According to Herodotus , Ecbatana was chosen as the Medes ' capital in 678 BC by Deioces , the first ruler of the Medes. Herodotus said that it had seven walls. Deioces' intention was to build a palace worthy of the dignity of a king. After choosing Ecbatana as his capital, Deioces decided to build a huge and strong palace in the form of seven nested castles. Herodotus says that each of them

200-473: A boy living on the island of Samos, to which he had fled with his family from the oppressions of Lygdamis, tyrant of Halicarnassus and grandson of Artemisia. Panyassis , the epic poet related to Herodotus, is reported to have taken part in a failed uprising. The Suda also states that Herodotus later returned home to lead the revolt that eventually overthrew the tyrant. Due to recent discoveries of inscriptions at Halicarnassus dated to about Herodotus's time, it

300-474: A distinguished position under Gotarzes; the third figure with Gotarzes' son and heir Orodes ; and the fourth with Gotarzes himself, who served as "satrap of satraps" under his father. Since the early 2nd-century BC, the Arsacids had begun adding obvious signals in their dynastic ideology, which emphasized their association with the heritage of the ancient Achaemenid Empire . Examples of these signs included

400-624: A domed ceiling, similar to a Median-era structure from Tepe Nush-i Jan , interpreted as a Zoroastrian fire temple . Excavations have revealed a massive defensive wall made of mud-bricks, and dated to the Median period based on a comparison to Tepe Nush-i Jan and Godin Tepe . There are also two column bases from the Achaemenid period, and some mud-brick structures thought to be from the Median or Achaemenid periods. A badly-damaged stone lion sculpture

500-494: A fictitious claim that the first Arsacid king, Arsaces I ( r.  247 – 217 BC ) was a descendant of the Achaemenid King of Kings , Artaxerxes II ( r.  404 – 358 BC ). Achaemenid titles were also assumed by the Arsacids, including the title of "King of Kings" by Mithridates I ( r.  171 – 132 BC ). However, the title was only infrequently used by Mithridates I, and it

600-703: A great killing I performed among them; except two men." At the time of his succession, the Parthian Empire was reeling from military pressures in the West and East. Several humiliating defeats at the hands of eastern nomads had sapped the strength and prestige of the kingdom. Mithridates II quickly gained the allegiance of the Characenean ruler Hyspaosines , who had originally fought the Parthians, and briefly seized Babylon in 127 BC. Hyspaosines returned

700-664: A historical topic more in keeping with the Greek world-view: focused on the context of the polis or city-state. The interplay of civilizations was more relevant to Greeks living in Anatolia, such as Herodotus himself, for whom life within a foreign civilization was a recent memory. Before the Persian crisis, history had been represented among the Greeks only by local or family traditions. The "Wars of Liberation" had given to Herodotus

800-404: A literary critic of Augustan Rome , listed seven predecessors of Herodotus, describing their works as simple unadorned accounts of their own and other cities and people, Greek or foreign, including popular legends, sometimes melodramatic and naïve, often charming – all traits that can be found in the work of Herodotus himself. Modern historians regard the chronology as uncertain, but according to

900-621: A major chance during his reign. Since the start of the Arsacid dynasty, the reverse of the coins had depicted a seated bowman wearing a bashlyk , which greatly resembled the coins of the Achaemenid satrap Datames (d. 362 BC). The bowman was originally depicted seated on a diphros , however, under Mithridates I this was changed to an omphalos . Tetradrachms minted at Seleucia and Susa under Mithridates II, including his early coin mints from central Iran and Marw in Margiana, maintained

1000-534: A native of Halicarnassus in Anatolia , and it is generally accepted that he was born there around 485 BC. The Suda says his family was influential, that he was the son of Lyxes and Dryo and the brother of Theodorus, and that he was also related to Panyassis – an epic poet of the time. Halicarnassus was then within the Persian Empire , making Herodotus a Persian subject, and it may be that

1100-451: A period coined in scholarship as the " Parthian Dark Age ", which refers to a period of three decades in the history of Parthian Empire starting from the death (or last years) of Mithridates II. It is referred to as a "Dark Age" due to the lack of clear information on the events of this period in the empire, except a series of, apparently overlapping, reigns. It is only with the beginning of the reign of Orodes II in c.  57 BC , that

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1200-602: A result. The Greeks thought Ecbatana to be the capital of the Median empire and credited its foundation to Deioces (the Daiukku of the cuneiform inscriptions). It is alleged that he surrounded his palace in Ecbatana with seven concentric walls of different colors. There are some indications that the walls of this complex might be an ancient ziggurat , which was a type of temple tower with multiple stories that were common in

1300-461: A son of Mithridates II, which has been suggested by the modern historian Edward Dąbrowa to have taken place shortly before he ascended the Armenian throne as a guarantee of his loyalty. Tigranes would remain a Parthian vassal until the end of the 80s BC. The following year, Mithridates II attacked Adiabene , Gordyene and Osrhoene and conquered these city states , shifting the western border of

1400-562: A tall, domed headdress, which was part of the Median national dress. Media, a region in central Iran which neighboured Parthia, was an important part of the Parthian realm under Mithridates II. According to Justin, the Parthian language shared many features with Median . The Parthians admired Median customs, and seemingly got familiar with Achaemenid heritage through Media. The tiara would be used by many Parthian kings, particularly in

1500-502: A temporary museum. With an area of over 600 square meters, a significant amount of the findings from Ecbatana are kept at this museum today, with some others at the National Museum of Iran and Reza Abbasi Museum . The Noushijan fire temple is one of the most important and oldest fire temples in the world, which is near Ecbatana. It is also the oldest adobe temple in the world. In 1967, the excavations of this place began under

1600-696: A version of the Histories written by "Herodotus of Thurium", and some passages in the Histories have been interpreted as proof that he wrote about Magna Graecia from personal experience there (IV, 15,99; VI, 127). According to Ptolemaeus Chennus , a late source summarized in the Library of Photius , Plesirrhous the Thessalian, the hymnographer, was the eromenos of Herodotus and his heir. This account has also led some historians to assume Herodotus died childless. Intimate knowledge of some events in

1700-520: A young Thucydides happened to be in the assembly with his father, and burst into tears during the recital. Herodotus observed prophetically to the boy's father: "Your son's soul yearns for knowledge." Eventually, Thucydides and Herodotus became close enough for both to be interred in Thucydides's tomb in Athens. Such at least was the opinion of Marcellinus in his Life of Thucydides . According to

1800-475: Is a rock relief which depicts four figures paying respect to a fifth figure. The relief, along with its Greek inscription, heavily damaged, was partly reconstructed by the German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld (d. 1948), and reads the following: "Kophasates, Mithrates, [...] Gotarzes the satrap of satraps, and the great king Mithradates." Rahim M. Shayegan (2011), has suggested, contrary to other scholars, that

1900-640: Is consistent with a tyrant under pressure. His name is not mentioned later in the tribute list of the Athenian Delian League , indicating that there might well have been a successful uprising against him some time before 454 BC. Herodotus wrote his Histories in the Ionian dialect , in spite of being born in a Dorian settlement. According to the Suda , Herodotus learned the Ionian dialect as

2000-684: Is corroborated in part by stone reliefs from the Neo-Assyrian Empire , depicting Median citadels ringed by concentric walls. Other sources attest to the historical importance of Ecbatana based on the terms used by ancient authors to describe it such as Caput Mediae (capital of Media), the Royal Seat, and the Great City. It is said that Alexander the Great deposited the treasures he took from Persepolis and Pasargadae and that one of

2100-491: Is generally assumed that he died not long afterwards, possibly before his sixtieth year. Herodotus would have made his researches known to the larger world through oral recitations to a public crowd. John Marincola writes in his introduction to the Penguin edition of the Histories that there are certain identifiable pieces in the early books of Herodotus's work which could be labeled as "performance pieces". These portions of

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2200-483: Is generally considered a reliable source of ancient history, many present-day historians believe that his accounts are at least partially inaccurate, attributing the observed inconsistencies in the Histories to exaggeration. Several English translations of Herodotus's Histories are available in multiple editions, including: Mithridates II of Parthia Mithridates II (also spelled Mithradates II or Mihrdad II ; Parthian : 𐭌𐭄𐭓𐭃𐭕 Mihrdāt )

2300-450: Is hot and damp, and the people live by cultivating the fields and planting rice. In this region live great birds which lay eggs as large as pots. The people are very numerous and are ruled by many petty chiefs. The ruler of Anxi [Parthia] gives orders to these chiefs and regards them as his vassals. The people are very skillful at performing tricks that amaze the eye." Sima Qian: 234–235 Mithridates II's last years of rule took place in

2400-543: Is mainly effected by art. The number of the circles is seven, the royal palace and the treasuries standing within the last. The circuit of the outer wall is very nearly the same with that of Athens . On this wall the battlements are white, of the next black, of the third scarlet, of the fourth blue, the fifth orange; all these colors with paint. The last two have their battlements coated respectively with silver and gold. All these fortifications Deioces had caused to be raised for himself and his own palace." Herodotus' description

2500-809: Is now known that the Ionic dialect was used in Halicarnassus in some official documents, so there is no need to assume (like the Suda ) that he must have learned the dialect elsewhere. The Suda is the only source placing Herodotus as the heroic liberator of his birthplace, casting doubt upon the veracity of that romantic account. As Herodotus himself reveals, Halicarnassus, though a Dorian city, had ended its close relations with its Dorian neighbours after an unseemly quarrel (I, 144), and it had helped pioneer Greek trade with Egypt (II, 178). It was, therefore, an outward-looking, international-minded port within

2600-489: Is now one of the most important structures left from the time of the Medes. Herodotus Herodotus ( Ancient Greek : Ἡρόδοτος , romanized :  Hēródotos ; c.  484  – c.  425 BC) was a Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus , part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum , Turkey) and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria , Italy. He wrote

2700-569: Is of disputed date: it may be Achaemenid or Parthian. Numerous Parthian-era constructions attest to Ecbatana's status as a summer capital for the Parthian rulers. In 2006, excavations in a limited area of Hagmatana hill failed to discover anything older than the Parthian period, but this does not rule out older archaeological layers existing elsewhere within the 35-hectare site. Ecbatana was first excavated in 1913 by Charles Fossey . Fossey discovered fragments of column bases adorned with arabesques and inscriptions, glazed bricks, and faience tiles during

2800-609: Is on account of the many strange stories and the folk-tales he reported that his critics have branded him "The Father of Lies". Even his own contemporaries found reason to scoff at his achievement. In fact, one modern scholar has wondered whether Herodotus left his home in Greek Anatolia , migrating westwards to Athens and beyond, because his own countrymen had ridiculed his work, a circumstance possibly hinted at in an epitaph said to have been dedicated to Herodotus at one of his three supposed resting places, Thuria : Herodotus

2900-420: Is one of the historical capitals of Iran and the present capital of East Azerbaijan province . The city, which was previously called Tauris, was put forward by John-Thomas Minadoi, who cited that his identification of the city was based on data collected from modern and ancient geographers, recent travel accounts, and local informants. This theory was also promoted by other historians, such as Sir William Jones and

3000-551: Is secure." Earlier, a lack of significant archaeological remains from the Median and Achaemenid periods had prompted suggestions of other sites for Ecbatana. Assyrian sources never mention Hagmatana/Ecbatana. Some scholars believed the problem can be resolved by identifying the Ecbatana/Hagmatana mentioned in later Greek and Achaemenid sources with the city Sagbita/Sagbat frequently mentioned in Assyrian texts, since

3100-418: Is the palace which is about seven stories in circumference, and its magnificence shows the wealth of its founders. During his time, no parts of the woodwork were left exposed. There were silver or gold-plated rafters, compartments in the ceiling, and columns in the porticos and colonnades, and silver tiles were used throughout the structure. In the invasion by Alexander , most precious metals were stripped, while

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3200-519: Is viewed favourably by both ancient and modern historians, who consider him one of the greatest and successful Parthian monarchs to ever rule. Justin says the following about him; "He was succeeded by his son Mithridates, to whom his achievements procured the surname of Great; for, being fired with a desire to emulate the merit of his ancestors, he was enabled by the vast powers of his mind to surpass their renown. He carried on many wars, with great bravery, against his neighbours, and added many provinces to

3300-614: The Histories , a detailed account of the Greco-Persian Wars , and was the first writer to apply a scientific method to historical events. He has been described as " The Father of History ", a title conferred on him by the ancient Roman orator Cicero , and the " Father of Lies " by others. The Histories primarily cover the lives of prominent kings and famous battles such as Marathon , Thermopylae , Artemisium , Salamis , Plataea , and Mycale . His work deviates from

3400-535: The Alcmaeonids , a clan whose history is featured frequently in his writing. According to Plutarch , Herodotus was granted a financial reward by the Athenian assembly in recognition of his work. Plutarch, using Diyllus as a source, says this was 10 talents . In 443 BC or shortly afterwards, he migrated to Thurii , in modern Calabria , as part of an Athenian-sponsored colony . Aristotle refers to

3500-491: The Euphrates to Babylon . For some reason, possibly associated with local politics, he subsequently found himself unpopular in Halicarnassus, and sometime around 447 BC, migrated to Periclean Athens  – a city whose people and democratic institutions he openly admired (V, 78). Athens was also the place where he came to know the local topography (VI, 137; VIII, 52–55), as well as leading citizens such as

3600-620: The Hellenistic diadem used by his earlier predecessors. He also replaced the omphalos on the reverse of his coins with a highbacked throne of Achaemenid origin. "Mithridates" is the Greek attestation of the Iranian name Mihrdāt , meaning "given by Mithra ", the name of the ancient Iranian sun god. The name itself is derived from Old Iranian Miθra-dāta- . Mithra is a prominent figure in Zoroastrian sources, where he plays

3700-522: The Indo-Iranian sound /s/ became /h/ in many Iranian languages . The Sagbita mentioned by Assyrian sources was located in the proximity of the cities Kishesim (Kar-Nergal) and Harhar (Kar-Sharrukin). It is now proposed that the absence of any mention of Ecbatana in Assyrian sources can be explained by the possibility that Assyria never became involved as far east as the Alvand mountains, but only in

3800-557: The Parthians led by Phraates II , and marked the final attempt on the part of the Seleucids to regain their power in eastern Iran against the Parthians. After their defeat, the territory of the Seleucids was limited to the area of modern-day Syria . Ecbatana later became the summer capital of the Parthians , and their main mint, producing drachms , tetradrachms , and assorted bronze denominations. The wealth and importance of

3900-772: The Peloponnesian War on the abduction of some prostitutes – a mocking reference to Herodotus, who reported the Persians' account of their wars with Greece , beginning with the rapes of the mythical heroines Io , Europa , Medea , and Helen . Similarly, the Athenian historian Thucydides dismissed Herodotus as a story-teller. Thucydides, who had been trained in rhetoric , became the model for subsequent prose-writers as an author who seeks to appear firmly in control of his material, whereas with his frequent digressions Herodotus appeared to minimize (or possibly disguise) his authorial control. Moreover, Thucydides developed

4000-513: The Persian Empire , and the historian's family could well have had contacts in other countries under Persian rule, facilitating his travels and his researches. Herodotus's eyewitness accounts indicate that he traveled in Egypt in association with Athenians, probably sometime after 454 BC or possibly earlier, after an Athenian fleet had assisted the uprising against Persian rule in 460–454 BC. He probably traveled to Tyre next and then down

4100-581: The Suda , he was buried in Macedonian Pella and in the agora in Thurii. Herodotus announced the purpose and scope of his work at the beginning of his Histories: Here are presented the results of the inquiry carried out by Herodotus of Halicarnassus. The purpose is to prevent the traces of human events from being erased by time, and to preserve the fame of the important and remarkable achievements produced by both Greeks and non-Greeks; among

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4200-516: The Tocharians , who had killed Artabanus I and Phraates II. Mithridates II also reconquered western Bactria from the Scythians . Parthian coinage and scattered reports imply that Mithridates II ruled Bactra , Kampyrtepa, and Termez , which means that he had reconquered the very lands that been conquered by his namesake Mithridates I ( r.  171 – 132 BC ). Control over

4300-420: The ancient Near East . In the 5th century BC, Herodotus wrote of Ecbatana: "The Medes built the city now called Ecbatana, the walls of which are of great size and strength, rising in circles one within the other. The plan of the place is, that each of the walls should out-top the one beyond it by the battlements. The nature of the ground, which is a gentle hill, favors this arrangements in some degree but it

4400-535: The Alusjerd river, which flows from north to south, separates the city into two parts. The summit of the Moṣallā, an 80 m (260 ft)-high rock hill in the southeast sector, contains stone and brick remnants of a rectangular citadel marked by towers. It is believed to be the Median citadel, which dates back no earlier than the Parthian era. The Tell Hagmatana, also called Tepe Hegmataneh (thought to correspond to

4500-581: The Greek title Soter ("Saviour"), which was used on his coin mints in Ecbatana and Rhages . The reason behind his use of the title is uncertain. Olbrycht (2010) has proposed that he adopted the title due to his victory over the nomads, while Grenet (2006) has proposed that Soter could be seen as a Mithraic title from an Iranian point of view, in connection to Mithra's role as a saviour in Zoroastrianism. The early Arsacid monarchs are depicted on

4600-510: The Parthian Empire for the first time established diplomatic relations with Rome and Han China . A champion of Achaemenid traditions, Mithridates II was determined to emphasize the association of the ruling Arsacid dynasty with the Iranian Achaemenid Empire. He was the first Parthian monarch to regularly use the title King of Kings , and portray himself with an Iranian tiara on the obverse of his coins , contrary to

4700-607: The Parthian realm to the Euphrates. There the Parthians encountered the Romans for the first time. In 96 BC Mithridates II sent one of his officials, Orobazus , as an envoy to Sulla . As the Romans were increasing in power and influence, the Parthians sought friendly relations with the Romans and thus wanted to reach an agreement that assured mutual respect between the two powers. Negotiations followed in which Sulla apparently gained

4800-618: The allegiance of Characene , and subduing the insurgent Kingdom of Elymais and also the Arabs , who had continuously raided Babylonia . Mithridates II was the first Parthian king to extend Parthian rule into the Caucasus , where the kingdoms of Armenia , Iberia , and possibly Caucasian Albania became Parthian vassal states. To the east, he defeated and conquered the nomadic tribes in Bactria who had killed both of his predecessors. Sakastan

4900-407: The ancient account, these predecessors included Dionysius of Miletus , Charon of Lampsacus, Hellanicus of Lesbos , Xanthus of Lydia and, the best attested of them all, Hecataeus of Miletus . Of these, only fragments of Hecataeus's works survived, and the authenticity of these is debatable, but they provide a glimpse into the kind of tradition within which Herodotus wrote his own Histories . It

5000-417: The ancient citadel of Ecbatana) has a circumference of 1.4 km (0.87 mi) and an area of about 40 hectares, which corresponds to a report from Polybius , although the ancient Greek and Roman accounts likely exaggerate Ecbatana's wealth, splendor, and extravagance. Relatively few finds thus far can be firmly dated to the Median era. There is a "small, open-sided room with four corner columns supporting

5100-594: The ancient site. In 1969, the Ministry of Culture and Art began buying property on the tell in support of archaeology, though excavation did not begin until 1983. By 2007, 12 seasons of excavation had occurred. In 1974, the Iranian Centre for Archeological Research performed some excavation in the Parthian cemetery located at southeast of Hamedan. The work on the tell is ongoing. Historians and archaeologists now believe "the identification of Ecbatana with Hamadān

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5200-591: The audience. It was conventional in Herodotus's day for authors to "publish" their works by reciting them at popular festivals. According to Lucian , Herodotus took his finished work straight from Anatolia to the Olympic Games and read the entire Histories to the assembled spectators in one sitting, receiving rapturous applause at the end of it. According to a very different account by an ancient grammarian, Herodotus refused to begin reading his work at

5300-572: The central Zagros . In 550 BC, Cyrus the Great defeated Astyages and conquered Ecbatana, forming the Achaemenid Empire . Although Ecbatana lost its former importance, it was located on the royal road, where it connected Persepolis to Sardis , and situated at the foot of Mount Alvand . So it was settled by the Achaemenid rulers. The city became the summer capital and a treasury of the Achaemenids. As mentioned in several sources,

5400-408: The challenge is great: The data are so few – they rest upon such late and slight authority; they are so improbable or so contradictory, that to compile them into a biography is like building a house of cards, which the first breath of criticism will blow to the ground. Still, certain points may be approximately fixed ... Herodotus was, according to his own statement, at the beginning of his work,

5500-458: The chief French orientalists. Ecbatana is the supposed capital of Astyages ( Istuvegü ), which was taken by the Persian emperor Cyrus the Great in the sixth year of the reign of Nabonidus (550/549 BC). Ecbatana Museum was opened in 1994. The museum is open all days of the week except Monday evening. Located in the east of Ecbatana hill, the museum building used to be a nursery school, but it has been put into changes and repairs to create

5600-454: The city during classical antiquity are attributed to its location, a crucial crossroads that made it a staging post on the main east–west highway called High-Road. There was a reputation for horses and wheat in the area (Polybius, 5.44.1). Graphite, gold, platinum, antimony, iron, and various minerals are found there; however, the classics mention oil seeps and flares, and there is no evidence of exploitation of these resources. In 130 BC, with

5700-518: The city was also used as a royal archive. In ancient times, Ecbatana was renowned for its wealth and splendid architecture. In 330 BC when Darius III faced Alexander , Ecbatana was in ruins, but Darius III ordered the construction of hundreds of hiding places in the middle of the city for treasures and assets. Some weeks before Darius III was killed in a coup in July 330 BC, Ecbatana was conquered, and Persepolis destroyed by Alexander. These events marked

5800-399: The country of Ecbatana; the royal residence he seized; silver, gold, other valuables of the country Ecbatana he took as booty and brought to Anšan." In the 2nd Century BC, Polybius writes about Ecbatana. He mentioned that the wealth and magnificence of its buildings make it stand out among all other cities. It has no walls but an artificial citadel with amazing fortifications. Underneath this

5900-403: The course of the six-week excavation of Mosalla. Based on his chance discoveries, it looks like the 30 m (98 ft)-high mound, Tell Hagmatana, is the site of the Median citadel and the Achaemenid royal construction. The sculptured head of a prince was found during the three months-long excavation of the eastern section. Excavations have been limited due to the modern town covering most of

6000-622: The end of the Achaemenid Empire. In 330 BC, Alexander the Great captured the treasury of Ecbatana, and he looted all the gold and silver decorations of the palace. Ecbatana was the site of the assassination of the Macedonian general Parmenion by Alexander's order. Later, in 305 BC, the city was ruled by Seleucus I . The Battle of Ecbatana was fought in 129 BC between the Seleucids led by Antiochus VII Sidetes and

6100-439: The festival of Olympia until some clouds offered him a bit of shade – by which time the assembly had dispersed. (Hence the proverbial expression "Herodotus and his shade" to describe someone who misses an opportunity through delay.) Herodotus's recitation at Olympia was a favourite theme among ancient writers, and there is another interesting variation on the story to be found in the Suda : that of Photius and Tzetzes , in which

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6200-422: The first genuinely historical inspiration felt by a Greek. These wars showed him that there was a corporate life, higher than that of the city, of which the story might be told; and they offered to him as a subject the drama of the collision between East and West. With him, the spirit of history was born into Greece; and his work, called after the nine Muses, was indeed the first utterance of Clio . Though Herodotus

6300-505: The first years of the Peloponnesian War (VI, 91; VII, 133, 233; IX, 73) suggests that he returned to Athens, in which case it is possible that he died there during an outbreak of the plague. It is also possible he died in Macedonia instead, after obtaining the patronage of the court there; or else he died back in Thurii. There is nothing in the Histories that can be dated to later than 430 BC with any certainty, and it

6400-543: The following year the Silk Road was opened up to trade. The strength and welfare of the empire under Mithridates II has been described by one Chinese traveler as the following: "Anxi [Parthia] is situated several thousand li west of the region of the Great Yuezhi. The people are settled on the land, cultivating the fields and growing rices and wheat. They also make wine out of grapes. They have walled cities like

6500-542: The influence of the Parthians. According to Babylonian documents, Babylonia was constantly suffering from raids by Arabs , which had agitated Mithridates II considerably. In the spring of 119 BC, a Parthian force inflicted a defeat on the Arabs, which was heavy enough to make them stop their raids for a period. It is unclear whether the force was led by Mithridates II or a Parthian commander. The Parthian force most likely left for Media afterwards, seemingly in order to join

6600-486: The intention of restoring the Seleucid power to Iran, Antiochus VII stopped in Ecbatana for a short period of time, just as Tigranes the Great , who stayed there in the following year to attack Mithridates II . Ecbatana remained loyal to the Parthians until AD 226, when Ardashir I defeated Artabanus IV and conquered Ecbatana from the north, alongside Atropatene . There is conflicting evidence as to whether Ecbatana

6700-465: The king. When the king dies, the currency is immediately changed and new coins issued with the face of his successor. The people keep records by writing horizontally on strips of leather. To the west lies Tiaozhi [Mesopotamia] and to the north Yancai and Lixuan [Hyrcania]. Tiaozhi [Mesopotamia] is situated several thousand li west of Anxi [Parthia] and borders the western sea [the Persian Gulf]. It

6800-701: The last acts of his life was to visit the city. The citadel of Ecbatana is also mentioned in the Bible in Ezra 6 :2, in the time of Darius I , as part of the national archives. The Nabonidus Chronicle , an ancient Babylonian text from the 5th century BC, describes how Astyages , the last Median king, was dethroned and how Cyrus conquered Ecbatana. "King Astyages called up his troops and marched against Cyrus , king of Anšan [ i.e., Persis ], in order to meet him in battle. The army of Astyages revolted against him and delivered him in fetters to Cyrus. Cyrus marched against

6900-545: The late Parthian period. This type of tiara was also later used by the vassal kings of the Parthians, such as the Kings of Persis . The founder of the Sasanian Empire , Ardashir I ( r.  242–242 AD ), also used this tiara. Like Artabanus I, Mithridates II is depicted on the obverse of his coins wearing an Iranian rider garb—the Parthian trouser-suit . The reverse of Mithridates II's coin mints also see

7000-418: The line of Parthian rulers can again be reliably traced. Coins, reliefs and Babylonian astronomical diaries label Gotarzes as the son and heir of Mithridates II. According to a heavily damaged relief at Behistun , Gotarzes had served as "satrap of satraps" under his father. After the death of Mithridates II in 91 BC, Gotarzes was proclaimed king at Babylon . At Mount Behistun in western Iran, there

7100-473: The main topics to provide a cultural, ethnographical , geographical, and historiographical background that forms an essential part of the narrative and provides readers with a wellspring of additional information. Herodotus was criticized in ancient times for his inclusion of "legends and fanciful accounts" in his work. The contemporaneous historian Thucydides accused him of making up stories for entertainment. He retorted that he reported what he could see and

7200-424: The matters covered is, in particular, the cause of the hostilities between Greeks and non-Greeks. His record of the achievements of others was an achievement in itself, though the extent of it has been debated. Herodotus's place in history and his significance may be understood according to the traditions within which he worked. His work is the earliest Greek prose to have survived intact. Dionysius of Halicarnassus ,

7300-455: The middle Amu Darya including Amul was vital for the Parthians, in order to thwart incursions by nomads from Transoxiana , particularly from Sogdia . Parthian coins continued to be minted in western Bactria and in the middle Amu Darya until the reign of Gotarzes II ( r.  40–51 AD ). Nomadic invasions had also reached the eastern Parthian province of Drangiana , where strong Saka dominions had been established, thus giving

7400-493: The obverse of their coins with a soft cap, known as the bashlyk , which had also been worn by Achaemenid satraps . From Mithridates I, the Hellenistic diadem was used by the Arsacid kings. The diadem was also used during the early reign of Mithridates II, until he later started using a tall bejewelled tiara or kolah (tall hat). The tiara was of Median origin; in the Achaemenid era, high ranking Median officers wore

7500-450: The people of Dayuan [Farghana], the region containing several hundred cities of various sizes. The kingdom, which borders the Gui [Oxus River], is very large, measuring several thousand li square. Some of the inhabitants are merchants who travel by cart or boats to neighbouring countries, sometimes journeying several thousand li . The coins of the country are made of silver and bear the face of

7600-602: The region to the Surenid general as his fiefdom. The eastern extent of the Parthian Empire under Mithridates II reached as far as Arachosia . Tigranes remained a hostage at the Parthian court until c.  96/95 BC , when Mithridates II released him and appointed as the king of Armenia. Tigranes ceded an area called "seventy valleys" in the Caspiane to Mithridates II, either as a pledge or because Mithridates II demanded it. Tigranes' daughter Ariazate had also married

7700-402: The remainder were stripped during Antigonus ' and Seleucus ' reigns. However, Antiochus found that the columns of the temple of Aene were still gilded and that several silver tiles were piled up around the temple along with some gold bricks (Polybius, 10.27). Topographically, Hamadan is characterized by three hills, Mosalla (place of prayer), Tell Hagmatana (Tappa-ye Hagmatana), Sang-e Sir, and

7800-468: The research seem independent and "almost detachable", so that they might have been set aside by the author for the purposes of an oral performance. The intellectual matrix of the 5th century, Marincola suggests, comprised many oral performances in which philosophers would dramatically recite such detachable pieces of their work. The idea was to criticize previous arguments on a topic and emphatically and enthusiastically insert their own in order to win over

7900-522: The rise to the name Sakastan ("land of the Saka"). These nomads had probably migrated to the area due to the pressure that Artabanus I and Mithridates II had been putting against them in the north. Sometime between 124 and 115 BC, Mithridates II sent an army led by a general of the House of Suren to recapture to the region. After Sakastan was incorporated back into the Parthian realm, Mithridates II rewarded

8000-426: The rock relief was not constructed during the reign of Mithridates II, but during that of his son and successor Gotarzes, perhaps as an attempt to stress the legitimacy of his sovereignty by portraying the prestigious status of himself and his officers during Mithridates II's kingship. He identifies the first figure with the Parthian satrap Kofzad; the second figure with the Parthian commander Mitratu, who first rose to

8100-578: The role of the patron of khvarenah , i.e. kingly glory. Mithra played an important under the late Iranian Achaemenid Empire , and continued to grow throughout the Greek Seleucid period, where he was associated with the Greek gods Apollo or Helios , or the Babylonian god Nabu . The role of Mithra peaked under the Parthians, which according to the modern historian Marek Jan Olbrycht, "seems to have been due to Zoroastrian struggles against

8200-429: The same style. However, on the coins minted in Ecbatana and Rhages, a tail-like piece of fabric has been added on the back of the bowman. In 117–111 BC, the omphalos was replaced by a highbacked throne, which was originally used in the Achaemenid era. The long piece of fabric has also been removed. During military assemblies and campaigns, a horse or gorytos was depicted on the reverse of his coins. Mithridates II

8300-486: The same time, Hyspaosines died, and the Parthian commander Sindates was appointed as the governor of Characene. It was first under Mithridates II that Parthian rule extended into the Caucasus . He noticed the strategic position of Armenia between Asia Minor , the Caucasus, and Iran. In c.  120 BC , Mithridates II invaded Armenia and made its king Artavasdes I acknowledge Parthian suzerainty. Artavasdes I

8400-403: The second king of the Medes. Other old legends attribute the origin of Ecbatana to the legendary Semiramis or Jamshid . Ecbatana has also been mentioned by other Greek historians such as Polybius , Ctesias , Justin and Xenophon . The Assyrians do not seem to mention Ecbatana, and it is likely they never penetrated east of the Alvand despite two centuries of involvement in Median areas of

8500-474: The son of Sphynx lies; in Ionic history without peer; a Dorian born, who fled from slander's brand and made in Thuria his new native land. Yet it was in Athens where his most formidable contemporary critics could be found. In 425 BC, which is about the time that Herodotus is thought by many scholars to have died, the Athenian comic dramatist Aristophanes created The Acharnians , in which he blames

8600-457: The spread of foreign faiths in the Hellenistic period ." The identity of Mithridates II's father is uncertain. According to 2nd-century Roman historian Justin , Mithridates II was a son of his predecessor, Artabanus I . A cuneiform tablet from 119 BC, however, cites Mithridates II; "of the Gutians who killed my brother Artabanus, and I set up (troops) opposite them and fought it with them;

8700-463: The supervision of David Stronach , which led to the identification of three historical periods in three separate floors. The third floor belongs to the Parthians , the second floor belongs to the Achaemenids , and the first floor belongs to the Medes . This place was the most important fire temple of the Medes from the second half of the 8th century to the first half of the 6th century BC, and it

8800-471: The upcoming expedition against the nomads in the east. Parthian interests were also directed towards Syria , which had first been demanded by the Parthians after Phraates II ( r.  132–127 BC ) defeated the Seleucid king ( basileus ) Antiochus VII Sidetes ( r.  138–129 BC ) in 129 BC. In 114/113 BC, Mithridates II captured the important Seleucid city of Dura-Europos , which

8900-508: The upper hand, which made Orobazus and the Parthians look like supplicants. Orobazus would later be executed. In 121 BC the Chinese under Emperor Wu of Han had defeated the Xiongnu in the east and were expanding westwards in force. In Ferghana the Chinese encountered the sphere of influence of the Parthians. A Chinese delegation to the Parthian court is attested for the year 120 BC. In

9000-517: The western Zagros . Sir Henry Rawlinson attempted to prove that there was a second and older Ecbatana in Media Atropatene on the site of the modern Takht-i-Suleiman . However, the cuneiform texts imply that there was only one city of the name, and that Takht-i Suleiman is the Gazaca of classical geography. There is also the claim that Ecbatana used to be the city of Tabriz , which

9100-421: The wooden throne of Arsaces to Mithridates II as a gift to the god Bel . Mithridates II now turned his eyes on Elymais , which had been originally under direct Parthian rule, but had been seized by the independent Elamite king Pittit after Artabanus I's death. Mithridates II invaded Elymais and captured Susa . Then he confronted Pittit in a final battle, where he defeated him and conquered Elymais. Around

9200-404: The young Herodotus heard local eyewitness accounts of events within the empire and of Persian preparations for the invasion of Greece , including the movements of the local fleet under the command of Artemisia I of Caria . Inscriptions recently discovered at Halicarnassus indicate that Artemesia's grandson Lygdamis negotiated with a local assembly to settle disputes over seized property, which

9300-479: Was also reconquered, which was given as a fiefdom to the House of Suren . In 114/113 BC, he seized Dura-Europos in Syria from the Seleucids , and by 95 BC, the northern Mesopotamian kingdoms of Adiabene , Gordyene , and Osrhoene had acknowledged his authority. Under Mithridates II, the Parthian Empire at its zenith extended from Syria and the Caucasus to Central Asia and India . It was under Mithridates II that

9400-435: Was first under Mithridates II, from c. 109/8 BC onwards, that the use of the title became a regular feature. The new title was used both on coins and engravings (attested in Greek as BAΣIΛEΥΣ BAΣIΛEΩN), and also Babylonian accounts, where it is attested as šar šarrāni . Mithridates II was more determined than his predecessors as heir and guardian of Achaemenid heritage. At the start of his reign, Mithridates II briefly used

9500-555: Was forced to give the Parthians Tigranes as a hostage, who was either his son or nephew. Control over Armenia would remain one of the most essential objectives in Parthian policy till the end of the dynasty. Other Caucasian kingdoms such as Iberia most likely also became a Parthian vassal state, and possibly also Caucasian Albania . Massive circulation of Parthian coins into Iberia, along with Armenia and Caucasian Albania, indicates that these kingdoms had been swayed by

9600-426: Was in the color of a planet. The royal palace and the treasury were located inside the seventh castle. The outer perimeter of the castle wall was almost the size of the city wall of Athens. The royal palace, which was built in the last inner fort, had hundreds of rooms and people also built their houses outside of these forts, next to the palace. Some archaeologists have also attributed its construction to Phraortes ,

9700-552: Was king of the Parthian Empire from 124 to 91 BC. Considered one of the greatest of his dynasty to ever rule, he was known as Mithridates the Great in antiquity. Mithridates II was crowned king after the abrupt death of his predecessor Artabanus I . Inheriting a declining empire that was reeling from military pressure in both the east and west, Mithridates II quickly stabilized the situation in Mesopotamia by gaining

9800-509: Was situated on the Euphrates . The Seleucid realm was at this time frail and entangled in ceaseless internal strifes and struggles for power against the Nabataeans , various local kings, Jews, and Greek cities in Syria and Phoenicia . According to Justin, Mithridates II avenged the death of his "parents or ancestors" ( ultor iniuriae parentum ), which indicates that he fought and defeated

9900-464: Was told. A sizable portion of the Histories has since been confirmed by modern historians and archaeologists . Modern scholars generally turn to Herodotus's own writing for reliable information about his life, supplemented with ancient yet much later sources, such as the Byzantine Suda , an 11th-century encyclopedia which possibly took its information from traditional accounts. Still,

10000-520: Was used as the summer capital for Sasanians or not. According to Ibn al-Faqih , buildings were built between Ctesiphon (The Sassanid capital) and Mount Alvand, but not beyond that. After the battle of Nahavand in 642 AD, Ecbatana fell to the Muslims, and around 1220, the city was completely destroyed by the Mongol invasion . Ecbatana was sacked in 1386 by Timur , and the population was slaughtered as

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