A written language is the representation of a language by means of writing . This involves the use of visual symbols, known as graphemes , to represent linguistic units such as phonemes , syllables , morphemes , or words . However, written language is not merely spoken or signed language written down, though it can approximate that. Instead, it is a separate system with its own norms, structures, and stylistic conventions, and it often evolves differently than its corresponding spoken or signed language.
71-414: Editing is the process of selecting and preparing written , visual , audible , or cinematic material used by a person or an entity to convey a message or information. The editing process can involve correction, condensation, organization, and many other modifications performed with an intention of producing a correct, consistent, accurate and complete piece of work. The editing process often begins with
142-719: A chapter on American English grammar and use, and a revised treatment of mathematical copy. In August 2010, the 16th edition was published simultaneously in the hardcover and online editions for the first time in the manual's history. In a departure from the earlier red-orange cover, the 16th edition features a robin's-egg blue dust jacket (a nod to older editions with blue jackets, such as the 11th and 12th). The 16th edition featured "music, foreign languages, and computer topics (such as Unicode characters and URLs )". It also expands recommendations for producing electronic publications, including web-based content and e-books . An updated appendix on production and digital technology demystified
213-463: A citation guide summary, and searchable access to a Q&A, where University of Chicago Press editors answer readers' style questions. The Chicago Manual of Style also discusses the parts of a book and the editing process. An annual subscription is required for access to the online content of the manual (access to the Q&;A, however, is free, as are various editing tools). Many publishers throughout
284-467: A comprehensive reference style guide of 1,146 pages in its 17th edition. It was one of the first editorial style guides published in the United States, and it is largely responsible for research methodology standardization, notably citation style . The most significant revision to the manual was made for the 12th edition, published in 1969. Its first printing of 20,000 copies sold out before it
355-412: A full bibliography at the end. Two types of citation styles are provided. In both cases, two parts are needed: first, notation in the text, which indicates that the information immediately preceding was from another source; and second, the full citation, which is placed at another location. Using author-date style, the sourced text is indicated parenthetically with the last name(s) of the author(s) and
426-429: A full citation either at the bottom of the page (as a footnote) or at the end of a main body of text (as an endnote). In both instances, the citation is also placed in a bibliography entry at the end of the material, listed in alphabetical order of the author's last name. The two formats differ: notes use commas where bibliography entries use periods. The following is an example of a journal article citation provided as
497-575: A handful of different locations, namely Mesopotamia and Egypt ( c. 3200 – c. 3100 BCE ), China ( c. 1250 BCE ), and Mesoamerica ( c. 1 CE ). Scholars mark the difference between prehistory and history with the invention of the first written language. The first writing can be dated back to the Neolithic era, with clay tablets being used to keep track of livestock and commodities. The first example of written language can be dated to Uruk , at
568-415: A hardcover book, and by subscription as a searchable website as The Chicago Manual of Style Online. The online version provides some free resources, primarily aimed at teachers, students, and libraries. The Chicago Manual of Style is published in hardcover and online. The online edition includes the searchable text of the 16th through 18th—its most recent—editions with features such as tools for editors,
639-809: A language community. Analogously, digraphia occurs when a language may be written in different scripts. For example, Serbian may be written using either the Cyrillic or Latin script , while Hindustani may be written in Devanagari or the Urdu alphabet . Writing systems can be broadly classified into several types based on the units of language they correspond with: namely logographic, syllabic, and alphabetic. They are distinct from phonetic transcriptions with technical applications, which are not used as writing as such. For example, notation systems for signed languages like SignWriting been developed, but it
710-406: A multi-author book (symposium editor or volume editor). Obtaining manuscripts or recruiting authors is the role of an acquisitions editor or a commissioning editor in a publishing house. Finding marketable ideas and presenting them to appropriate authors are the responsibilities of a sponsoring editor. Copy editors correct spelling , grammar and align writings to house style . Changes to
781-525: A note and its bibliography entry. In order of appearance, the elements of a bibliography entry are: What now is known as The Chicago Manual of Style was first published in 1906 under the title Manual of Style: Being a compilation of the typographical rules in force at the University of Chicago Press, to which are appended specimens of type in use . From its first 203-page edition, the CMOS evolved into
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#1732757665282852-441: A research paper or report, and correcting errors in citations. From basics to more critical changes, these adjustments to the text can be categorized by the different terms within technical editing. There are policy edits, integrity edits, screening edits, copy clarification edits, format edits and mechanical style edits, language edits, etc. The two most common and broad are substantive editing and copy editing. Substantive editing
923-781: A result, the written form of a language may retain archaic features or spellings that no longer reflect contemporary speech. Over time, this divergence may contribute to a dynamic of diglossia. There are too many grammatical differences to address, but here is a sample. In terms of clause types, written language is predominantly declarative (e.g. It's red. ) and typically contains fewer imperatives (e.g. Make it red. ), interrogatives (e.g. Is it red? ), and exclamatives (e.g. How red it is! ) than spoken or signed language. Noun phrases are generally predominantly third person , but they are even more so in written language. Verb phrases in spoken English are more likely to be in simple aspect than in perfect or progressive aspect, and almost all of
994-434: A single language community in different social contexts. The "high variety", often the written language, is used in formal contexts, such as literature, formal education, or official communications. This variety tends to be more standardized and conservative, and may incorporate older or more formal vocabulary and grammar. The "low variety", often the spoken language, is used in everyday conversation and informal contexts. It
1065-551: A team of in-house editors, rely on a network of individual contractors or both. Such firms are able to handle editing in a wide range of topics and genres, depending on the skills of individual editors. The services provided by these editors may be varied and can include proofreading , copy editing , online editing , developmental editing , editing for search engine optimization , etc. Self-employed editors work directly for clients (e.g., authors, publishers) or offer their services through editing firms, or both. They may specialize in
1136-426: A type of editing (e.g., copy editing) and in a particular subject area. Those who work directly for authors and develop professional relationships with them are called authors' editors . There is hope for self-employed editors because all editing differs based on tradition, experience, education, personal style, values, etc. Written language Written languages serve as crucial tools for communication, enabling
1207-443: Is cinematic editing. Cinematic editing entails anything that is to be used as cinematic material, mainly films. Cinematic editing dates back to the early 1900's when American filmmaker, D.W. Griffith , produced the first films that essentially paved the way for the editing techniques that are still used today. The progression of technology brought about advancements in gear, which meant filmmakers were able to achieve new techniques in
1278-478: Is a style guide for American English published since 1906 by the University of Chicago Press . Its 18 editions (the most recent in 2024) have prescribed writing and citation styles widely used in publishing. The guide specifically focuses on American English and deals with aspects of editorial practice, including grammar and usage, as well as document preparation and formatting. It is available in print as
1349-402: Is a key driver of social mobility . Firstly, it underpins success in formal education, where the ability to comprehend textbooks, write essays, and interact with written instructional materials is fundamental. High literacy skills can lead to better academic performance, opening doors to higher education and specialized training opportunities. In the job market, proficiency in written language
1420-493: Is a wider range of vocabulary used and individual words are less likely to be repeated. It also includes fewer first and second-person pronouns and fewer interjections. Written English has fewer verbs and more nouns than spoken English, but even accounting for that, verbs like think , say , know , and guess appear relatively less commonly with a content clause complement (e.g. I think that it's OK . ) in written English than in spoken English. Writing developed independently in
1491-519: Is crucial for promoting social mobility and reducing inequality. The Canadian philosopher Marshall McLuhan (1911–1980) primarily presented his ideas about written language in The Gutenberg Galaxy (1962). Therein, McLuhan argued that the invention and spread of the printing press , and the shift from oral tradition to written culture that it spurred, fundamentally changed the nature of human society. This change, he suggested, led to
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#17327576652821562-462: Is developmental because it guides the drafting process by providing essential building blocks to work off of. They work closely with the author to help supply ideas. Copy editing happens later in the drafting process and focuses on changing the text so that it's consistent throughout in terms of accuracy, style, flow, and so on. This is usually the preferred editing for the surface-level cleaning up of work. Large companies dedicate experienced writers to
1633-439: Is for block quotations , where the citation is placed outside the punctuation. The full citation for the source is then included in a references section at the end of the material. As publication dates are prominent in this style, the reference entry places the publication date following the author(s) name. Using notes and bibliography style, the sourced text is indicated by a superscripted note number that corresponds to
1704-574: Is not universally agreed that these constitute a written form of the sign language in themselves. Orthography comprises the rules and conventions for writing a given language, including how its graphemes are understood to correspond with speech. In some orthographies, there is a one-to-one correspondence between phonemes and graphemes, as in Serbian and Finnish . These are known as shallow orthographies . In contrast, orthographies like that of English and French are considered deep orthographies due to
1775-792: Is often a determinant of employment opportunities. Many professions require a high level of literacy, from drafting reports and proposals to interpreting technical manuals. The ability to effectively use written language can lead to higher paying jobs and upward career progression. Literacy enables additional ways for individuals to participate in civic life, including understanding news articles and political debates to navigating legal documents. However, disparities in literacy rates and proficiency with written language can contribute to social inequalities . Socio-economic status, race, gender, and geographic location can all influence an individual's access to quality literacy instruction. Addressing these disparities through inclusive and equitable education policies
1846-518: Is relatively much more common in written language than in spoken language. Another example is that a construction like it was difficult to follow him is relatively more common in written language than in spoken language, compared to the alternative packaging to follow him was difficult . A final example, again from English, is that the passive voice is relatively more common in writing than in speaking. Written language typically has higher lexical density than spoken or signed language, meaning there
1917-429: Is the main way of editing video clips, but in the 1900s, it was linear editing . As computer systems and software have developed, video clips are now able to be uploaded directly to the editing software, making the editing process quicker. With this evolution of editing, creativity has been sped up, editing has become easier, and there are now countless ways for writers to tell stories. In terms of editing visual content,
1988-504: Is typically more dynamic and innovative, and may incorporate regional dialects, slang, and other informal language features. Diglossic situations are common in many parts of the world, including the Arab world , where the high Modern Standard Arabic variety coexists with other, low varieties of Arabic local to specific regions. Diglossia can have significant implications for language education, literacy, and sociolinguistic dynamics within
2059-467: Is typically more immediate, reflecting the local context of the conversation and the emotions of the agents, often via paralinguistic cues like body language . Utterances are typically less premeditated, and are more likely to feature informal vocabulary and shorter sentences. They are also primarily used in dialogue, and as such include elements that facilitate turn-taking ; these including prosodic features such as trailing off and fillers that indicate
2130-426: Is used widely by academic and some trade publishers, as well as editors and authors who are required by those publishers to follow it. Kate L. Turabian's A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations also reflects Chicago style. Chicago style offers writers a choice of several different formats. It allows the mixing of formats, provided that the result is clear and consistent. For instance,
2201-427: The publishing industry since the 1980s have resulted in nearly all copy editing of book manuscripts being outsourced to freelance copy editors. At newspapers and wire services , press or copy editors write headlines and work on more substantive issues, such as ensuring accuracy, fairness, and taste. In some positions, they design pages and select news stories for inclusion. At British and Australian newspapers,
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2272-402: The 15th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style permits the use of both in-text citation systems and/or footnotes or endnotes , including use of "content notes"; it gives information about in-text citation by page number (such as MLA style ) or by year of publication (like APA style ); it even provides for variations in styles of footnotes and endnotes, depending on whether the paper includes
2343-515: The ability to sustain focus while working through lengthy pieces of text on complex topics, tact in dealing with writers, and excellent communication skills. Additionally, one does not need an English major to partake but language aptitude certainly helps. Editing is a growing field of work in the service industry . There is little career training offered for editors. Paid editing services may be provided by specialized editing firms or by self-employed ( freelance ) editors. Editing firms may employ
2414-501: The aid of tone of voice, facial expressions, or body language, which often results in more explicit and detailed descriptions. While a speaker can typically be identified by the quality of their voice, the author of a written text is often not obvious to a reader only analyzing the text itself. Writers may nevertheless indicate their identity via the graphical characteristics of their handwriting . Written languages generally change more slowly than their spoken or signed counterparts. As
2485-413: The author's idea for the work itself, continuing as a collaboration between the author and the editor as the work is created. Editing can involve creative skills, human relations and a precise set of methods. Practicing editing can be a surefire way to reduce language error in future literature works. There are various editorial positions in publishing. Typically, one finds editorial assistants reporting to
2556-471: The book publishing environment, while the roles of production editor and copy editor remain. However, another editor is sometimes involved in the creation of scholarly research articles. Called the authors' editor , this editor works with authors to get a manuscript fit for purpose before it is submitted to a scholarly journal for publication. The primary difference between copy editing scholarly books and journals and other sorts of copy editing lies in applying
2627-405: The case of multi-author edited volumes , before the manuscript is delivered to the publisher it has undergone substantive and linguistic editing by the volume's editor, who works independently of the publisher. As for scholarly journals , where spontaneous submissions are more common than commissioned works, the position of journal editor or editor-in-chief replaces the acquisitions editor of
2698-774: The complex relationships between sounds and symbols. For instance, in English, the phoneme / f / can be represented by the graphemes ⟨f⟩ as in ⟨fish⟩ , ⟨ph⟩ as in ⟨phone⟩ , or ⟨gh⟩ as in ⟨enough⟩ . Orthographies also include rules about punctuation, capitalization, word breaks, and emphasis. They may also include specific conventions for representing foreign words and names, and for handling spelling changes to reflect changes in pronunciation or meaning over time. The Chicago Manual of Style The Chicago Manual of Style (abbreviated as CMOS , TCM , or CMS , or sometimes as Chicago )
2769-456: The continuous advancements in technology. As a result, the grounds and values of editing have changed as well. For instance, text is often shortened and simplified online because of the preference for quick answers among this generation. Additionally, the advancement in social issues has made it possible to offer easy access to vast amounts of information. Apart from editing written work, video editing has also evolved. Nowadays, non-linear editing
2840-540: The emergence of new forms of media and language that have led to a move towards multimodality . Today, hardcopies and print are no longer the main focus of editing as new content like film and audio require different kinds of edits. Technical editing is now more commonly done using applications and websites on devices, which requires editors to be familiar with online platforms like Adobe Acrobat , Microsoft Office , and Google Docs . The significance and intentions behind editing have also changed, moving beyond print due to
2911-400: The emergence of new written genres and conventions, such as interactions via social media . This has implications for social relationships, education, and professional communication. Literacy is the ability to read and write. From a graphemic perspective, this ability requires the capability of correctly recognizing or reproducing graphemes, the smallest units of written language. Literacy
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2982-487: The end of the 4th millennium BCE. An ancient Mesopotamian poem tells a tale about the invention of writing: Because the messenger's mouth was heavy and he couldn't repeat, the Lord of Kulaba patted some clay and put words on it, like a tablet. Until then, there had been no putting words on clay. The origins of written language are tied to the development of human civilization. The earliest forms of writing were born out of
3053-405: The latest publishing practices and electronic workflows and self-publishing. Citation recommendations, the glossary of problematic words and phrases, and the bibliography have all been updated and expanded. In the 17th edition, email lost its hyphen, internet became lowercase, the singular "they" and "their" are now acceptable in certain circumstances, a major new section on syntax has been added, and
3124-412: The long-standing recommendation to use "ibid" has changed due to electronic publishing. The 18th edition was the first to recommend omitting publication locations from citations. It added citation styles for A.I. generated text and images, increased the scope of usage of singular and non-binary "they," and abandoned its efforts (since 1969) of writing "Roman" in "Roman numerals" in lowercase. It removed
3195-422: The manipulation of different qualities of a photo. Today, there are a multitude of applications to choose from to edit the content or qualities of photos; PhotoShop is a common example, as well as other applications such as Adobe Lightroom. Modern photo editing techniques include, but are not limited to linearization, white balance, noise reduction, tone reproduction and compression. The other form of Visual editing
3266-486: The many questions that arise when documenting online and digital sources, from the use of DOIs to citing social networking sites . Figures and tables are updated throughout the book, including a return to manual's popular hyphenation table and new, selective listings of Unicode numbers for special characters. In 2013, an adapted Spanish version was published by the University of Deusto in Bilbao , Spain. In April 2016,
3337-486: The modern age. Furthermore, he theorized about the effects of different media on human consciousness and society. He famously asserted that " the medium is the message ", meaning that the form of a medium embeds itself in any message it would transmit or convey, creating a symbiotic relationship by which the medium influences how the message is perceived. While McLuhan's ideas are influential, they have also been critiqued and debated. Some scholars argue that he overemphasized
3408-509: The modes of language, the individual speaking, signing, or writing will be referred to as the sender , and the individual listening, viewing, or reading as the receiver ; senders and receivers together will be collectively termed agents . The spoken, signed, and written modes of language mutually influence one another, with the boundaries between conventions for each being fluid—particularly in informal written contexts like taking quick notes or posting on social media. Spoken and signed language
3479-426: The necessity to record commerce, historical events, and cultural traditions. The first known true writing systems were developed during the early Bronze Age (late 4th millennium BCE) in ancient Sumer , present-day southern Iraq. This system, known as cuneiform , was pictographic at first, but later evolved into an alphabet, a series of wedge-shaped signs used to represent language phonemically . At roughly
3550-401: The past perfect verbs appear in written fiction. Information packaging is the way that information is packaged within a sentence, that is the linear order in which information is presented. For example, On the hill, there was a tree has a different informational structure than There was a tree on the hill . While, in English, at least, the second structure is more common, the first example
3621-404: The post-production process through editing. Editors went from physically cutting and rearranging film to working on virtual timelines using software like Davinci Resolve or Premiere pro . Technical editing involves reviewing text written on a technical topic, identifying usage errors and ensuring adherence to a style guide. It aims to improve the clarity of the text or message from the author to
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#17327576652823692-453: The preservation and transmission of culture, history, and knowledge across time and space, allowing societies to develop complex systems of law, administration, and education. For example, the invention of writing in ancient Mesopotamia enabled the creation of detailed legal codes, like the Code of Hammurabi . The advent of digital technology has revolutionized written communication, leading to
3763-437: The process of electronic workflow and offered a primer on the use of XML markup. It also includes a revised glossary, including a host of terms associated with electronic and print publishing. The Chicago system of documentation is streamlined to achieve greater consistency between the author-date and notes-bibliography systems of citation, making both systems easier to use. In addition, updated and expanded examples address
3834-511: The publisher released The Chicago Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation , Bryan A. Garner 's expansion of his Chicago Manual of Style chapter on the topic, and coinciding with the release of the new edition of Garner's Modern American Usage . The 17th edition was published in September 2017. It offers new and expanded style guidelines in response to advancing technology and social change. It also includes new and revised content reflecting
3905-594: The reader. Technical editing is actually the umbrella term for all the different kinds of edits that might occur. Technical editing may include the correction of grammatical mistakes, misspellings, mistyping, incorrect punctuation, inconsistencies in usage, poorly structured sentences, wrong scientific terms, wrong units and dimensions, inconsistency in significant figures, technical ambivalence, technical disambiguation, statements conflicting with general scientific knowledge, correction of synopsis, content, index, headings and subheadings, correcting data and chart presentation in
3976-562: The recording, preservation, and transmission of information, ideas, and culture across time and space. The orthography of a written language comprises the norms by which it is expected to function, including rules regarding spelling and typography. A society's use of written language generally has a profound impact on its social organization, cultural identity, and technological profile. Writing , speech , and signing are three distinct modalities of language ; each has unique characteristics and conventions. When discussing properties common to
4047-471: The rise of individualism , nationalism , and other aspects of modernity. McLuhan proposed that written language, especially as reproduced in large quantities by the printing press, contributed to a linear and sequential mode of thinking, as opposed to the more holistic and contextual thinking fostered by oral cultures. He associated this linear mode of thought with a shift towards more detached and objective forms of reasoning, which he saw as characteristic of
4118-443: The role of the medium (in this case, written language) at the expense of the content of communication. It has also been suggested that his theories are overly deterministic, not sufficiently accounting for the ways in which people can use and interpret media in varied ways. Diglossia is a sociolinguistic phenomenon where two distinct varieties of a language – often one spoken and one written – are used by
4189-512: The same time, the system of Egyptian hieroglyphs was developing in the Nile valley, also evolving from pictographic proto-writing to include phonemic elements. The Indus Valley civilization developed a form of writing known as the Indus script c. 2600 BCE , although its precise nature remains undeciphered. The Chinese script , one of the oldest continuously used writing systems in
4260-440: The sender has not yet finished their turn. Errors encountered in spoken and signed language include disfluencies and hesitation. By contrast, written language is typically more structured and formal. While speech and signing are transient, writing is permanent. It allows for planning, revision, and editing, which can lead to more complex sentences and a more extensive vocabulary. Written language also has to convey meaning without
4331-421: The senior-level editorial staff and directors who report to senior executive editors. Senior executive editors are responsible for developing a product for its final release. The smaller the publication, the more these roles overlap. The top editor at many publications may be known as the chief editor , executive editor , or simply the editor. A frequent and highly regarded contributor to a magazine may acquire
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#17327576652824402-648: The standards of the publisher to the copy. Most scholarly publishers have a preferred style that usually specifies a particular dictionary and style manual—for example, The Chicago Manual of Style , the MLA Style Manual or the APA Publication Manual in the U.S., or the New Hart's Rules in the U.K. Editing has a long history dating back to the earliest times of written language. Over time, editing has evolved greatly, particularly with
4473-557: The technical editing function. Organizations that cannot afford dedicated editors typically have experienced writers peer-edit text produced by less experienced colleagues. It helps if the technical editor is familiar with the subject being edited. The "technical" knowledge that an editor gains over time while working on a particular product or technology does give the editor an edge over another who has just started editing content related to that product or technology. General essential skills include attention to detail, patience, persistence,
4544-485: The term is sub-editor . They may choose the layout of the publication and communicate with the printer. These editors may have the title of layout or design editor or (more so in the past) makeup editor . In film editing, many techniques are available for use, however, using one doesn't make your edit 'better' than if it were not to be used. Within the publishing environment, editors of scholarly books are of three main types, each with particular responsibilities: In
4615-461: The title of editor-at-large or contributing editor . Mid-level newspaper editors often manage or help to manage sections, such as business, sports and features. In U.S. newspapers, the level below the top editor is usually the managing editor . In the book publishing industry, editors may organize anthologies and other compilations, produce definitive editions of a classic author's works (scholarly editor), and organize and manage contributions to
4686-427: The two main forms would be photo and cinematic. Photo editing has evolved considerably from humble means, dating back to the early 20th century. During the 1920s, photographers established a new discipline of creative editing by creating collages from multiple photos. By the late 1980's, it became possible to computerize images by running physical photos through a scanner. Over time, software began to develop, aimed toward
4757-465: The voice of Socrates , expressed concerns in the dialogue " Phaedrus " that a reliance on writing would weaken one's ability to memorize and understand, as written words would "create forgetfulness in the learners' souls, because they will not use their memories". He further argued that written words, being unable to answer questions or clarify themselves, are inferior to the living, interactive discourse of oral communication. Written language facilitates
4828-787: The world adopt "Chicago" as their style. It is used in some social science publications, most North American historical journals, and remains the basis for the Style Guide of the American Anthropological Association , the Style Sheet for the Organization of American Historians , and corporate style guides, including the Apple Style Guide . The Chicago Manual of Style includes chapters relevant to publishers of books and journals. It
4899-410: The world, originated around the late 2nd millennium BCE, evolving from oracle bone script used for divination purposes. The development and use of written language has had profound impacts on human societies, influencing everything from social organization and cultural identity to technology and the dissemination of knowledge. Plato ( c. 427 – 348 BCE), through
4970-433: The year of publication with no intervening punctuation. When page numbers are used, they are placed along with the author's last name and date of publication after an interposed comma. If the author's name is used in the text, only the date of publication need be cited parenthetically (with or without the page number). In-text citations are usually placed just inside a mark of punctuation. An exception to this rule
5041-454: Was printed. In 1982, with the publication of the 13th edition, it was officially retitled The Chicago Manual of Style , adopting the informal name already in widespread use. More recently, the publishers have released a new edition about every seven to ten years. The 15th edition (2003) was revised to reflect the emergence of computer technology and the internet in publishing, offering guidance for citing electronic works. Other changes include
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