Lexicography is the study of lexicons and the art of compiling dictionaries. It is divided into two separate academic disciplines :
31-452: The Etymologicum Genuinum (standard abbreviation E Gen or EtGen ) is the conventional modern title given to a lexical encyclopedia compiled at Constantinople in the mid-ninth century. The anonymous compiler drew on the works of numerous earlier lexicographers and scholiasts , both ancient and recent, including Aelius Herodianus , Georgius Choeroboscus , Saint Methodius , Orion of Thebes , Oros of Alexandria and Theognostus
62-438: A description of the language in general use. Such a dictionary is usually called a general dictionary or LGP dictionary (Language for General Purpose). Specialized lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of specialized dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that are devoted to a (relatively restricted) set of linguistic and factual elements of one or more specialist subject fields, e.g. legal lexicography . Such
93-402: A dictionary is usually called a specialized dictionary or Language for specific purposes dictionary and following Nielsen 1994, specialized dictionaries are either multi-field, single-field or sub-field dictionaries. It is now widely accepted that lexicography is a scholarly discipline in its own right and not a sub-branch of applied linguistics , as the chief object of study in lexicography
124-432: A dictionary), 'dictionary use' (or observing the reference acts and skills of dictionary users), and 'dictionary IT' (or applying computer aids to the process of dictionary compilation). One important consideration is the status of 'bilingual lexicography', or the compilation and use of the bilingual dictionary in all its aspects (see e.g. Nielsen 1994). In spite of a relatively long history of this type of dictionary, it
155-658: A dictionary. They are responsible for arranging lexical material (usually alphabetically ) to facilitate understanding and navigation. Coined in English 1680, the word "lexicography" derives from the Greek λεξικογράφος ( lexikographos ), "lexicographer", from λεξικόν ( lexicon ), neut. of λεξικός lexikos , "of or for words", from λέξις ( lexis ), "speech", "word" (in turn from λέγω ( lego ), "to say", "to speak" ) and γράφω ( grapho ), "to scratch, to inscribe, to write". Practical lexicographic work involves several activities, and
186-431: A public is a population of individuals in association with civic affairs, or affairs of office or state. In social psychology, marketing, and public relations, a public has a more situational definition. John Dewey defined ( Dewey 1927 ) public as a group of people who, in facing a similar problem, recognize it and organize themselves to address it. Dewey's definition of a public is thus situational: people organized about
217-541: A public is distinct from a stakeholder or a market . A public is a subset of the set of stakeholders for an organization, that comprises those people concerned with a specific issue. Whilst a market has an exchange relationship with an organization, and is usually a passive entity that is created by the organization, public does not necessarily have an exchange relationship, and is both self-creating and self-organizing. Publics are targeted by public relations efforts. In this, target publics are those publics whose involvement
248-645: A public is viewed as a condition of political involvement that is not transitory; and " homo narrans ", where a public is (in the words of Gabriel M. Vasquez, assistant professor in the School of Communication at the University of Houston ) a collection of "individuals that develop a group consciousness around a problematic situation and act to solve the problematic situations" ( Vasquez 1993 , pp. 209). Public schools are often under controversy for their "agenda-building," especially in debates over whether to teach
279-500: A religious or secular curriculum. The promotion of an agenda is commonplace whenever one is in a public environment, but schools have exceptional power in that regard. One non-situational concept of a public is that of Kirk Hallahan, professor at Colorado State University , who defines a public as "a group of people who relate to an organization, who demonstrate varying degrees of activity—passivity, and who might (or might not) interact with others concerning their relationship with
310-399: A situation. Built upon this situational definition of a public is the situational theory of publics by James E. Grunig ( Grunig 1983 ), which talks of nonpublics (who have no problem), latent publics (who have a problem), aware publics (who recognize that they have a problem), and active publics (who do something about their problem). In public relations and communication theory,
341-422: A synonym for theoretical lexicography; others use it to mean a branch of linguistics pertaining to the inventory of words in a particular language. A person devoted to lexicography is called a lexicographer and is, according to a jest of Samuel Johnson , a "harmless drudge". Generally, lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of general dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that provide
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#1732766216733372-420: Is necessary for achieving organization goals; intervening publics are opinion formers and mediators, who pass information to the target publics; and influentials are publics that the target publics turn to for consultation, whose value judgements are influential upon how a target public will judge any public relations material. The public is often targeted especially in regard to political agendas as their vote
403-508: Is necessary in order to further the progression of the cause. As seen in Massachusetts between 2003 and 2004, it was necessary to "win a critical mass of states and a critical mass of public support" in order to get same-sex marriage passed in the commonwealth. Public relations theory perspectives on publics are situational, per Dewey and Grunig; mass, where a public is simply viewed as a population of individuals; agenda-building, where
434-657: Is often said to be less developed in a number of respects than its unilingual counterpart, especially in cases where one of the languages involved is not a major language. Not all genres of reference works are available in interlingual versions, e.g. LSP , learners' and encyclopedic types, although sometimes these challenges produce new subtypes, e.g. 'semi-bilingual' or 'bilingualised' dictionaries such as Hornby's (Oxford) Advanced Learner's Dictionary English-Chinese , which have been developed by translating existing monolingual dictionaries (see Marello 1998). Traces of lexicography can be identified as early late 4th millennium BCE, with
465-631: Is the dictionary (see e.g. Bergenholtz/Nielsen/Tarp 2009). Lexicography is the practice of creating books, computer programs, or databases that reflect lexicographical work and are intended for public use. These include dictionaries and thesauri which are widely accessible resources that present various aspects of lexicology, such as spelling, pronunciation, and meaning. Lexicographers are tasked with defining simple words as well as figuring out how compound or complex words or words with many meanings can be clearly explained. They also make decisions regarding which words should be kept, added, or removed from
496-548: The 15th century, lexicography flourished. Dictionaries became increasingly widespread, and their purpose shifted from a way to store lexical knowledge to a mode of disseminating lexical information. Modern lexicographical practices began taking shape during the 18th and 19th centuries, led by notable lexicographers such as Samuel Johnson , Vladimir Dal , the Brothers Grimm , Noah Webster , James Murray , Peter Mark Roget , Joseph Emerson Worcester , and others. During
527-452: The 20th century, the invention of computers changed lexicography again. With access to large databases, finding lexical evidence became significantly faster and easier. Corpus research also enables lexicographers to discriminate different senses of a word based on said evidence. Additionally, lexicographers were now able to work nonlinearly, rather than being bound to a traditional lexicographical ordering like alphabetical ordering . In
558-746: The Grammarian . The Etymologicum Genuinum was possibly a product of the intellectual circle around Photius . It was an important source for the subsequent Byzantine lexicographical tradition, including the Etymologicum Magnum , Etymologicum Gudianum and Etymologicum Symeonis . Modern scholarship discovered the Etymologicum Genuinum only in the nineteenth century. It is preserved in two tenth-century manuscripts , Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1818 (= A) and Codex Laurentianus Sancti Marci 304 (= B; AD 994). Neither contains
589-466: The compilation of well-crafted dictionaries requires careful consideration of all or some of the following aspects: One important goal of lexicography is to keep the lexicographic information costs incurred by dictionary users as low as possible. Nielsen (2008) suggests relevant aspects for lexicographers to consider when making dictionaries as they all affect the users' impression and actual use of specific dictionaries. Theoretical lexicography concerns
620-505: The discipline begins to develop more steadily. Lengthier glosses started to emerge in the literary cultures of antiquity, including Greece, Rome , China, India, Sasanian Persia , and the Middle East. In 636, Isidore of Seville published the first formal etymological compendium. The word dictionarium was first applied to this type of text by the late 14th century. With the invention and spread of Gutenberg's printing press in
651-532: The earliest recension nor the complete text, but rather two different abridgements. The manuscript evidence and citations in later works suggest that the original title was simply τὸ Ἐτυμολογικόν and later τὸ μέγα Ἐτυμολογικόν. Its modern name was coined in 1897 by Richard Reitzenstein , who was the first to edit a sample section. The Etymologicum Genuinum remains for the most part unpublished except for specimen glosses. Two editions are in long-term preparation, one begun by Ada Adler and continued by Klaus Alpers ,
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#1732766216733682-493: The early 21st century, the increasing ubiquity of artificial intelligence began to impact the field, which had traditionally been a time-consuming, detail-oriented task. The advent of AI has been hailed by some as the "end of lexicography". Others are skeptical that human lexicographers will be outmoded in a field studying the particularly human substance of language. Public In public relations and communication science , publics are groups of individual people , and
713-577: The first known examples being Sumerian cuneiform texts uncovered in the city of Uruk . Ancient lexicography usually consisted of word lists documenting a language's lexicon . Other early word lists have been discovered in Egyptian , Akkadian , Sanskrit , and Eblaite , and take the shape of mono- and bilingual word lists. They were organized in different ways including by subject and part of speech. The first extensive glosses , or word lists with accompanying definitions, began to appear around 300 BCE, and
744-420: The organization". Samuel Mateus's 2011 paper "Public as Social Experience" considered to view the concept by an alternative point of view: the public "is neither a simple audience constituted by media consumers nor just a rational-critical agency of a Public Sphere". He argued "the concept should also be seen in the light of a publicness principle, beyond a critic and manipulative publicity (...). In accordance,
775-455: The other by François Lasserre and Nikolaos Livadaras . The latter edition is published under the title Etymologicum Magnum Genuinum , but this designation is not widely used and is a potential source of confusion with the twelfth-century lexical compendium conventionally titled the Etymologicum Magnum . Lexicography There is some disagreement on the definition of lexicology , as distinct from lexicography. Some use "lexicology" as
806-430: The public (a.k.a. the general public ) is the totality of such groupings. This is a different concept to the sociological concept of the Öffentlichkeit or public sphere . The concept of a public has also been defined in political science , psychology , marketing , and advertising. In public relations and communication science, it is one of the more ambiguous concepts in the field. Although it has definitions in
837-445: The public may be regarded as the result of the social activities made by individuals sharing symbolic representations and common emotions in publicness. Seen with lower-case, the concept is a set of subjectivities who look publicly for a feeling of belonging. So, in this perspective, the public is still a fundamental notion to social life although in a different manner in comparison to 18th century Public Sphere's Public. He means above all
868-446: The same aspects as lexicography, but aims to develop principles that can improve the quality of future dictionaries, for instance in terms of access to data and lexicographic information costs. Several perspectives or branches of such academic dictionary research have been distinguished: 'dictionary criticism' (or evaluating the quality of one or more dictionaries, e.g. by means of reviews (see Nielsen 1999), 'dictionary history' (or tracing
899-450: The social textures and configurations where successive layers of social experience are built up." Social publics are groups of people united by common ideas, ideology, or hobbies. Networked publics are social publics which have been socially restructured by the networking of technologies. As such, they are simultaneously both (1) the space constructed through networked technologies and (2) the imagined collective which consequently emerges as
930-611: The theory of the field that have been formulated from the early 20th century onwards, and suffered more recent years from being blurred, as a result of conflation of the idea of a public with the notions of audience, market segment, community, constituency, and stakeholder. The name "public" originates with the Latin publicus (also poplicus ), from populus , to the English word ' populace ', and in general denotes some mass population ("the people") in association with some matter of common interest. So in political science and history,
961-402: The traditions of a type of dictionary or of lexicography in a particular country or language), 'dictionary typology' (or classifying the various genres of reference works, such as dictionary versus encyclopedia, monolingual versus bilingual dictionary, general versus technical or pedagogical dictionary), 'dictionary structure' (or formatting the various ways in which the information is presented in