117-484: The Douglas F3D Skyknight ( later redesignated F-10 Skyknight ) is an American twin-engined, mid-wing jet fighter aircraft designed and manufactured by the Douglas Aircraft Company . It was designed in response to a 1945 United States Navy requirement for a jet-powered, radar-equipped, carrier-based night fighter . Douglas designed the aircraft around the bulky air intercept radar systems of
234-562: A Boeing 737-200 that suffered catastrophic cabin failure mid-flight, was primarily caused by the aircraft's continued operation despite having accumulated more than twice the number of flight cycles that the airframe was designed to endure. For increased passenger comfort, several modern airliners, such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner and the Airbus A350 XWB , feature reduced operating cabin altitudes as well as greater humidity levels;
351-544: A MiG-15 jet fighter. The fire control system in the F3D-1 was the Westinghouse AN/APQ-35 . The AN/APQ-35 was advanced for the time, a combination of three different radars, each performing separate functions: an AN/APS-21 search radar, an AN/APG-26 tracking radar, both located in the nose, and an AN/APS-28 tail warning radar. The AN/APS-21 was capable of detecting aircraft at distances up to 20 miles away while
468-540: A bulletproof windscreen. A total of 237 F3D-2s were built prior to production being terminated on 23 March 1952. At one stage, a higher performance F3D-3 variant, equipped with swept wings and J46 engines, was planned, yet work was cancelled after the J46's development was so troublesome that officials opted to terminate work. The 28 F3D-1s produced were primarily used to train F3D crews, as such, this model did not see combat in
585-515: A MiG-15 northwest of Pyongyang . USMC pilot Lt. Joseph Corvi and his radar operator Sergeant Dan George set another record with the Skyknight on the night of 10 December 1952, when they downed the first aircraft by an aircraft with a radar track and lock-on and without visual contact. They performed the feat by using their radar to lock onto a Polikarpov Po-2 biplane . They were also credited with another probable kill that night. In January 1953,
702-444: A cabin altitude of 24,800 ft (7,600 m) (5.5 psi (0.38 bar)); Gemini used an altitude of 25,700 ft (7,800 m) (5.3 psi (0.37 bar)); and Apollo used 27,000 ft (8,200 m) (5.0 psi (0.34 bar)) in space. This allowed for a lighter space vehicle design. This is possible because at 100% oxygen, enough oxygen gets to the bloodstream to allow astronauts to operate normally. Before launch,
819-460: A cabin altitude of 6,000 ft (1,829 m). Despite this, its cabin altitude was intentionally maintained at 6,000 ft (1,829 m). This combination, while providing for increasing comfort, necessitated making Concorde a significantly heavier aircraft, which in turn contributed to the relatively high cost of a flight. Unusually, Concorde was provisioned with smaller cabin windows than most other commercial passenger aircraft in order to slow
936-585: A cabin atmosphere of 14.5 psi (1.00 bar) for the Space Shuttle orbiter and the International Space Station . An airtight fuselage is pressurized using a source of compressed air and controlled by an environmental control system (ECS). The most common source of compressed air for pressurization is bleed air from the compressor stage of a gas turbine engine; from a low or intermediate stage or an additional high stage,
1053-561: A fighter category F incorporates not only aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air warfare, but also multipurpose aircraft designed also for attack missions. The Air Force has even assigned the F designation to attack-only aircraft, such as the F-111 Aardvark and F-117 Nighthawk . The only A designated aircraft currently in the U.S. Air Force is the A-10 Thunderbolt II . The last front line A designated in
1170-425: A higher altitude than other newly designed civilian aircraft. Russian engineers used an air-like nitrogen/oxygen mixture, kept at a cabin altitude near zero at all times, in their 1961 Vostok , 1964 Voskhod , and 1967 to present Soyuz spacecraft. This requires a heavier space vehicle design, because the spacecraft cabin structure must withstand the stress of 14.7 pounds per square inch (1 atm, 1.01 bar) against
1287-615: A higher pressure than for the 8,000 ft (2,438 m) altitude of older conventional aircraft; according to a joint study performed by Boeing and Oklahoma State University , such a level significantly improves comfort levels. Airbus has stated that the A350 XWB provides for a typical cabin altitude at or below 6,000 ft (1,829 m), along with a cabin atmosphere of 20% humidity and an airflow management system that adapts cabin airflow to passenger load with draught-free air circulation. The adoption of composite fuselages eliminates
SECTION 10
#17327752867141404-455: A manual back-up control system. All exhaust air is dumped to atmosphere via an outflow valve, usually at the rear of the fuselage. This valve controls the cabin pressure and also acts as a safety relief valve, in addition to other safety relief valves. If the automatic pressure controllers fail, the pilot can manually control the cabin pressure valve, according to the backup emergency procedure checklist. The automatic controller normally maintains
1521-418: A pair of Westinghouse J34 -WE-24 turbojets, capable of 3,000 lbf (13 kN) thrust, which were installed underneath the roots of then-standard straight wings of the early jet era. During June 1948, a production contract for 28 F3D-1 production aircraft, powered by improved J34-WE-32 engines, was issued; relatively little external changes were made between the prototype and production aircraft, save for
1638-429: A particular design are assigned a modified mission code. They are: The multi-mission and utility missions could be considered the same thing; however they are applied to multipurpose aircraft conducting certain categories of mission. M-aircraft conduct combat or special operations while U-aircraft conduct combat support missions, such as transport (e.g., UH-60 ) and electronic warfare (e.g., MC-12 ). Historically,
1755-436: A pressure loss incident would be to perform a rapid descent. The designed operating cabin altitude for new aircraft is falling and this is expected to reduce any remaining physiological problems. Both the Boeing 787 Dreamliner and the Airbus A350 XWB airliners have made such modifications for increased passenger comfort. The 787's internal cabin pressure is the equivalent of 6,000 ft (1,829 m) altitude resulting in
1872-580: A project but the aircraft was never built. The following table lists design numbers in the 1962 system which have been skipped. Since 1939, a 2-letter manufacturer's code has been added to designations to identify the manufacturer and the production plant. For example, F-15E-50-MC, the "MC" being the code for the McDonnell Douglas plant at St. Louis, Missouri. In 1941, block numbers were added to designations to show minor equipment variations between production blocks. The block number appears in
1989-465: A sea-level cabin altitude when cruising at 41,000 ft (12,497 m). One study of eight flights in Airbus A380 aircraft found a median cabin pressure altitude of 6,128 ft (1,868 m), and 65 flights in Boeing 747-400 aircraft found a median cabin pressure altitude of 5,159 ft (1,572 m). Before 1996, approximately 6,000 large commercial transport airplanes were assigned
2106-544: A type certificate to fly up to 45,000 ft (13,716 m) without having to meet high-altitude special conditions. In 1996, the FAA adopted Amendment 25-87, which imposed additional high-altitude cabin pressure specifications for new-type aircraft designs. Aircraft certified to operate above 25,000 ft (7,620 m) "must be designed so that occupants will not be exposed to cabin pressure altitudes in excess of 15,000 ft (4,572 m) after any probable failure condition in
2223-485: Is a process in which conditioned air is pumped into the cabin of an aircraft or spacecraft in order to create a safe and comfortable environment for humans flying at high altitudes. For aircraft, this air is usually bled off from the gas turbine engines at the compressor stage, and for spacecraft, it is carried in high-pressure, often cryogenic , tanks. The air is cooled, humidified, and mixed with recirculated air by one or more environmental control systems before it
2340-825: Is a unified system introduced in 1962 by the United States Department of Defense for designating all U.S. military aircraft . Previously, the U.S. armed services used separate nomenclature systems . Under the tri-service designation system, officially introduced on 18 September 1962, almost all aircraft receive a unified designation, whether they are operated by the United States Air Force (USAF), United States Navy (USN), United States Marine Corps (USMC), United States Army , United States Space Force (USSF), or United States Coast Guard (USCG). Experimental aircraft operated by manufacturers or by NASA are also often assigned designations from
2457-467: Is distributed to the cabin. The first experimental pressurization systems saw use during the 1920s and 1930s. In the 1940s, the first commercial aircraft with a pressurized cabin entered service. The practice would become widespread a decade later, particularly with the introduction of the British de Havilland Comet jetliner in 1949. However, two catastrophic failures in 1954 temporarily grounded
SECTION 20
#17327752867142574-478: Is more suitable (e.g., M in MH-53J Pave Low III ). The defined codes are: The rise of the multirole fighter in the decades since the system was introduced has created some confusion about the difference between attack and fighter aircraft. According to the current designation system, an attack aircraft ( A ) is designed primarily for air-to-surface missions (also known as "attack missions"), while
2691-503: Is no longer used but was meant to designate aircraft "on the drawing board". For example, using this system an airframe such as the F-13 could have initially been designated as ZF-13 during the design phase, possibly XF-13 if experimental testing was required before building a prototype, the YF-13; the final production model would simply be designated F-13 (with the first production variant being
2808-404: Is rare but has resulted in a number of fatal accidents . Failures range from sudden, catastrophic loss of airframe integrity (explosive decompression) to slow leaks or equipment malfunctions that allow cabin pressure to drop. Any failure of cabin pressurization above 10,000 ft (3,048 m) requires an emergency descent to 8,000 ft (2,438 m) or the closest to that while maintaining
2925-622: Is required to merit a new series letter, e.g., the F-16C production run has varied extensively over time. The modification of an aircraft to carry out a new mission does not necessarily require a new suffix (e.g., F-111Cs modified for reconnaissance are designated RF-111C), but often a new letter is assigned (e.g., the UH-60As modified for Search and Rescue missions are designated HH-60G ). Some series letters have been skipped to forestall confusion with pre-1962 naval designations; for instance, there
3042-484: Is typical for older jet airliners. A design goal for many, but not all, newer aircraft is to provide a lower cabin altitude than older designs. This can be beneficial for passenger comfort. For example, the Bombardier Global Express business jet can provide a cabin altitude of 4,500 ft (1,372 m) when cruising at 41,000 ft (12,497 m). The Emivest SJ30 business jet can provide
3159-732: The Douglas DC-6 , the Douglas DC-7 , and the Constellation to have certified service ceilings from 24,000 to 28,400 ft (7,315 to 8,656 m). Designing a pressurized fuselage to cope with that altitude range was within the engineering and metallurgical knowledge of that time. The introduction of jet airliners required a significant increase in cruise altitudes to the 30,000–41,000 ft (9,144–12,497 m) range, where jet engines are more fuel efficient. That increase in cruise altitudes required far more rigorous engineering of
3276-543: The F6D Missileer , which was essentially an updated and enlarged F3D that would carry the AAM-N-10 Eagle long-range air-to-air missile , with its most important characteristics being its large fuel capacity, its considerable time-on-station, a crew of two and sophisticated electronics, rather than speed or maneuverability. This concept, which retained the straight wings in an age of supersonic combat aircraft,
3393-661: The Korean War . The F3D-2 Skyknight was only operated in the Korean theatre by United States Marine Corps (USMC) land–based squadrons, beginning in August 1952. The first aircraft to arrive in Korea were initially unable to commence operations due to a lack of gun barrel extensions, which were necessary to safely fire the aircraft's cannons; the first aircraft to be modified was on 9 August 1952, permitting live operations to commence in
3510-522: The SA-2 surface-to-air missiles tracking and guidance systems. VMCJ-1 made history when its EF-10Bs conducted the first USMC airborne radar jamming mission on 29 April 1965 to support a USAF strike mission. On 27 July 1965, four EF-10Bs also supported a massive strike on missile sites outside Hanoi . Many U.S. aircraft were lost to SA-2s in Vietnam. The electronic attack on the associated radar systems
3627-600: The Vietnam War as a precursor to the EA-6A Intruder and EA-6B Prowler . The aircraft is sometimes unofficially called "Skynight", dropping the second "k". The unusual, portly profile earned it the nickname "Willie the Whale". Some Vietnam War U.S. Marine veterans have referred to the Skyknight as " Drut ", whose meaning becomes obvious when read backwards. This may be in reference to its age, unflattering looks, or
Douglas F3D Skyknight - Misplaced Pages Continue
3744-492: The chemical oxygen generators fitted to most planes cannot supply sufficient oxygen. In jet fighter aircraft, the small size of the cockpit means that any decompression will be very rapid and would not allow the pilot time to put on an oxygen mask. Therefore, fighter jet pilots and aircrew are required to wear oxygen masks at all times. On June 30, 1971, the crew of Soyuz 11 , Soviet cosmonauts Georgy Dobrovolsky , Vladislav Volkov , and Viktor Patsayev were killed after
3861-433: The fuselage ; this stress is proportional to the difference in pressure inside and outside the cabin. In a typical commercial passenger flight, the cabin altitude is programmed to rise gradually from the altitude of the airport of origin to a regulatory maximum of 8,000 ft (2,438 m). This cabin altitude is maintained while the aircraft is cruising at its maximum altitude and then reduced gradually during descent until
3978-419: The inner ear and sinuses and this has to be managed carefully. Scuba divers flying within the "no fly" period after a dive are at risk of decompression sickness because the accumulated nitrogen in their bodies can form bubbles when exposed to reduced cabin pressure. The cabin altitude of the Boeing 767 is typically about 7,000 ft (2,134 m) when cruising at 37,000 ft (11,278 m). This
4095-413: The minimum sector altitude (MSA), and the deployment of an oxygen mask for each seat. The oxygen systems have sufficient oxygen for all on board and give the pilots adequate time to descend to below 8,000 ft (2,438 m). Without emergency oxygen, hypoxia may lead to loss of consciousness and a subsequent loss of control of the aircraft. Modern airliners include a pressurized pure oxygen tank in
4212-529: The 1960s in a gull white color scheme, by which point many of their contemporaries had long since been retired. During 1962, at which point the U.S. Navy and U.S. Air Force unified their designation systems, the F3D-1 was redesignated F-10A while the F3D-2 was redesignated F-10B . The Skyknight was the only Korean War jet fighter that also flew in Vietnam. EF-10Bs served in the Electronic warfare role during
4329-632: The AN/APG-26 could achieve a weapons lock up to 2.25 miles away and the AN/APS-28 was effective up to 10 miles away. The complexity of this vacuum tube -based radar system, produced before the advent of semiconductor electronics, required intensive maintenance to keep it operating properly. The F3D-1 was followed by the F3D-2 , which was first ordered in August 1949. This model was intended to have Westinghouse J46 engines in enlarged nacelles to replace
4446-694: The Chodo Island area, extending from the Haeju peninsula to the Yalu River. One F3D, piloted by LTJG Bob Bick and his RO, Chief Petty Officer Linton Smith, was lost to enemy fire on 2 July 1953. This aircraft was part of the detachment from Fleet Composite Squadron FOUR (VC-4) at NAS Atlantic City . Operational Comments June 1953 through July 1953 The following are excerpts from Carrier Air Group FOUR, Action Report of VC-4 Detachment 44N for period 19 June 1953 to 27 July 1953. 1. The radar equipment in
4563-512: The Comet worldwide. These failures were investigated and found to be caused by a combination of progressive metal fatigue and aircraft skin stresses caused from pressurization. Improved testing involved multiple full-scale pressurization cycle tests of the entire fuselage in a water tank, and the key engineering principles learned were applied to the design of subsequent jet airliners. Certain aircraft have unusual pressurization needs. For example,
4680-468: The F-13A). Continuing the example, some F-13s during their service life may have been used for testing modifications or researching new designs and designated JF-13 or NF-13; finally after many years of service, the airframe would be permanently grounded due to safety or economic reasons as GF-13. Aircraft which are modified after manufacture or even built for a different mission from the standard airframe of
4797-435: The F3D-2 is excellent, however the relatively low speed and slow rate of climb of the aircraft prohibits exploiting the advantage of the excellent radar coverage against high speed enemy jets. 2. The extreme visibility of the glow from the engines' tailpipes offers an easy target for a pursuer and a detriment to the evasiveness of the aircraft. 3. The near vertical forward windshield and the lack of windshield wipers, limits
Douglas F3D Skyknight - Misplaced Pages Continue
4914-472: The J34-WE-32 engines of the F3D-1; however, on account of development problems with the J46, the F3D-2 was initially fitted with J34-WE-36 engines instead. Higher-thrust J34-WE-38 engines were installed later, noticeably increasing the aircraft's performance. Additional changes on the F3D-2 included the incorporation of an improved Westinghouse AN/APQ-36 fire control system, autopilot , air conditioning , and
5031-526: The Korean War, the F3D was gradually replaced by more powerful aircraft with better radar systems. Its stability and spacious fuselage made the aircraft easily adaptable to other roles. The F3D (under the designations F3D-1M and F3D-2M ) was used to support development of a number of air-to-air missile systems during the 1950s, including the Sparrow I, II, and III and Meteor missiles. The Sparrow missile
5148-451: The Navy, and Marine Corps refer to it as Type/Model/Series (T/M/S). These optional prefixes are attached to aircraft not conducting normal operations, such as research, testing and development. The prefixes are: A temporary special test means the aircraft is intended to return to normal service after the tests are completed, while permanent special test aircraft are not. The Planning code
5265-650: The Skyknight encountered problems. Shortly thereafter, Grumman recognised that the G-75 would not be a successful aircraft, instead, the company had been working on a completely different single-engined day fighter, initially known as the G-79 ; it would later become the Grumman F9F Panther . On 23 March 1948, the XF3D-1 performed its maiden flight from Douglas' El Segundo facility with test pilot Russell Thaw at
5382-613: The U.S. Navy and Marine Corps was the A-6 Intruder , with the only strictly A designated fixed-wing aircraft remaining is the A-29 Super Tucano leased under the Imminent Fury program. Of these code series, no normal aircraft have been assigned a K or R basic mission code in a manner conforming to the system. The vehicle type element is used to designate the type of aerospace craft. Aircraft not in one of
5499-560: The USAF's Douglas RB-66 Destroyer also assumed electronic missions. During May 1970, the U.S. Marine Corps retired the last of its EF-10Bs. The U.S. Navy continued to use the F-10s for avionics systems testing. The F-10 was used as a radar testbed to develop the APQ-72 radar. The nose of an F-4 Phantom was added to the front of an F-10B. Another F-10 had a modified radome installed by
5616-562: The Vietnam War until 1969. The large interior provided ample room for electronic equipment. U.S. Marine Marine Composite Reconnaissance Squadron One (VMCJ-1) Golden Hawks began operating the EF-10B on 17 April 1965 under Lt. Col Wes Corman at Da Nang Air Base Republic of Vietnam with six aircraft. No more than 10 EF-10Bs were in Vietnam at one time. The Electronic Warfare Skyknight was a valuable Electronic countermeasure asset to jam
5733-556: The X-series of the tri-service system. The 1962 system was based on the one used by the USAF between 1948 and 1962, which was in turn based on the type, model, series USAAS/USAAC/USAAF system used from 1924 to 1948. The 1962 system has been modified and updated since introduction. The Tri-Service system was first enacted on 6 July 1962 by the DoD Directive 4505.6 "Designating, Redesignating, and Naming Military Aircraft" and
5850-472: The aircraft around the bulky air intercept radar systems of the time, placing the pilot and radar operator in side-by-side seating . The result was an aircraft with a wide, deep, and roomy fuselage. Aviation author Joe Copalman observed that the F3D was a relatively conventional aircraft, despite its use of jet propulsion , the design team having opted for features such as a straight wing and traditional tail unit. A large and relatively flat forward windshield
5967-496: The airframe was designed to endure. Aloha 243 was able to land despite the substantial damage inflicted by the decompression, which had resulted in the loss of one member of the cabin crew; the incident had far-reaching effects on aviation safety policies and led to changes in operating procedures. The supersonic airliner Concorde had to deal with particularly high pressure differentials because it flew at unusually high altitude (up to 60,000 ft (18,288 m)) and maintained
SECTION 50
#17327752867146084-455: The bleed air that is directed to the ECS is then expanded to bring it to cabin pressure, which cools it. A final, suitable temperature is then achieved by adding back heat from the hot compressed air via a heat exchanger and air cycle machine known as a PAC (Pressurization and Air Conditioning) system. In some larger airliners, hot trim air can be added downstream of air-conditioned air coming from
6201-446: The cabin altitude (a representation of the air pressure, see below ) stays above 12,500 ft (3,810 m) for more than 30 minutes, or if the cabin altitude reaches 14,000 ft (4,267 m) at any time. At altitudes above 15,000 ft (4,572 m), passengers are required to be provided oxygen masks as well. On commercial aircraft, the cabin altitude must be maintained at 8,000 ft (2,438 m) or less. Pressurization of
6318-404: The cabin pressure matches the ambient air pressure at the destination. Keeping the cabin altitude below 8,000 ft (2,438 m) generally prevents significant hypoxia , altitude sickness , decompression sickness , and barotrauma . Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations in the U.S. mandate that under normal operating conditions, the cabin altitude may not exceed this limit at
6435-420: The cabin pressure would be automatically maintained at about 6,900 ft (2,100 m), (450 ft (140 m) lower than Mexico City), which is about 790 hPa (11.5 psi) of atmosphere pressure. Some aircraft, such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner , have re-introduced electric compressors previously used on piston-engined airliners to provide pressurization. The use of electric compressors increases
6552-478: The cabin vent valve accidentally opened before atmospheric re-entry. The aircraft that pioneered pressurized cabin systems include: In the late 1910s, attempts were being made to achieve higher and higher altitudes. In 1920, flights well over 37,000 ft (11,278 m) were first achieved by test pilot Lt. John A. Macready in a Packard-Le Père LUSAC-11 biplane at McCook Field in Dayton, Ohio . The flight
6669-420: The cargo hold is also required to prevent damage to pressure-sensitive goods that might leak, expand, burst or be crushed on re-pressurization. The principal physiological problems are listed below. The pressure inside the cabin is technically referred to as the equivalent effective cabin altitude or more commonly as the cabin altitude . This is defined as the equivalent altitude above mean sea level having
6786-466: The cockpit, giving the pilots more time to bring the aircraft to a safe altitude. The time of useful consciousness varies according to altitude. As the pressure falls the cabin air temperature may also plummet to the ambient outside temperature with a danger of hypothermia or frostbite . For airliners that need to fly over terrain that does not allow reaching the safe altitude within a maximum of 30 minutes, pressurized oxygen bottles are mandatory since
6903-416: The controls. While wind tunnel testing had indicated the need for aerodynamic changes, such as the addition of wing fences , flight testing provided these to be unnecessary. Flight testing continued at El Segundo up until October 1948, after which the three prototypes were transported to Muroc Air Force Base (later renamed Edwards Air Force Base) to participate in service trials. These units were powered by
7020-448: The conventional cockpit instruments were all mounted outside the chamber, visible through five small portholes. The first attempt to operate the aircraft was again made by Lt. John A. McCready, who discovered that the turbine was forcing air into the chamber faster than the small release valve provided could release it. As a result, the chamber quickly over pressurized, and the flight was abandoned. A second attempt had to be abandoned when
7137-461: The designation between the model suffix and manufacturers code (for example F-100D-85-NH). Initially, they incremented in numerical order −1, −2, −3 but this was changed to −1, −5, −10, −15 in increments of five. The gaps in the block numbers could be used for post-delivery modifications—for example, a F-100D-85-NH could be modified in the field to F-100D-86-NH. Not all types have used block numbers. Cabin pressurization Cabin pressurization
SECTION 60
#17327752867147254-556: The development of larger bombers where crew were required to move about the cabin. The first bomber built with a pressurised cabin for high altitude use was the Vickers Wellington Mark VI in 1941 but the RAF changed policy and instead of acting as Pathfinders the aircraft were used for other purposes. The US Boeing B-29 Superfortress long range strategic bomber was first into bomb service. The control system for this
7371-543: The effect of progressive metal fatigue as the fuselage undergoes repeated stress cycles coupled with a misunderstanding of how aircraft skin stresses are redistributed around openings in the fuselage such as windows and rivet holes. The critical engineering principles concerning metal fatigue learned from the Comet 1 program were applied directly to the design of the Boeing 707 (1957) and all subsequent jet airliners. For example, detailed routine inspection processes were introduced, in addition to thorough visual inspections of
7488-472: The electrical generation load on the engines and introduces a number of stages of energy transfer; therefore, it is unclear whether this increases the overall efficiency of the aircraft air handling system. They do, however, remove the danger of chemical contamination of the cabin , simplify engine design, avert the need to run high pressure pipework around the aircraft, and provide greater design flexibility. Unplanned loss of cabin pressure at altitude/in space
7605-419: The enlargement of the engine nacelles. The first production aircraft made its first flight on 13 February 1950. That same month, shore-based testing was concluded. As a night fighter that was not expected to be as fast as smaller daylight fighters, the expectation was to have a stable platform for its radar system and the four 20 mm cannon mounted in the lower fuselage. Yet, the F3D was capable of outturning
7722-531: The entire crew of Apollo 1 during a 1967 ground test. After this, NASA revised its procedure to use a nitrogen/oxygen mix at zero cabin altitude at launch, but kept the low-pressure pure oxygen atmosphere at 5 psi (0.34 bar) in space. After the Apollo program , the United States used "a 74-percent oxygen and 26-percent nitrogen breathing mixture" at 5 psi (0.34 bar) for Skylab , and
7839-425: The era, resulting in a wide, deep, and roomy fuselage that accommodated its two-man crew. An initial contract was issued to Douglas on 3 April 1946. The XF3D-1 prototype performed its maiden flight on 23 March 1948. During June 1948, a production contract for 28 F3D-1 production aircraft was received. It was equipped with a Westinghouse AN/APQ-35 fire control system , which incorporated three separate radars and
7956-420: The exact stage depending on engine type. By the time the cold outside air has reached the bleed air valves, it has been heated to around 200 °C (392 °F ). The control and selection of high or low bleed sources is fully automatic and is governed by the needs of various pneumatic systems at various stages of flight. Piston-engine aircraft require an additional compressor, see diagram right. The part of
8073-619: The fame of the North American F-86 Sabre , it downed several Soviet-built MiG-15s as a night fighter over Korea. It only sustained a single air-to-air loss against a Chinese MiG-15, which occurred on the night of 29 May 1953. A total of 237 F3D-2s were completed before production was terminated on 23 March 1952. The Skyknight played an important role in the development of the radar-guided AIM-7 Sparrow missile, which led to further guided air-to-air missile developments. It also served as an electronic warfare platform in
8190-493: The following categories (most fixed-wing aircraft) are not required to carry a type designator. The type categories are: A UAV control segment is not an aircraft, it is the ground control equipment used to command a UAV. Only in recent years has an aircraft been designated as a spaceplane, the proposed MS-1A . According to the designation system, aircraft of a particular vehicle type or basic mission (for manned, fixed-wing, powered aircraft) were to be numbered consecutively, and
8307-563: The following weeks. Prior to this, exercises were conducted to develop closer coordination with ground controllers, upon whom the F3D-2s were dependent upon during their night time operations. From the onset of operations, hostile jamming from inside North Korea proved to be effective against onboard radar. This factor contributed to Skyknight pilots often experiencing difficulty when attempting to close in, identify, and lock onto suspected hostile aircraft. Ground-based anti-aircraft artillery, which
8424-514: The former military aircraft could be offered at a much lower price than newly designed business jets such as the Lockheed JetStar . Some work on the initiative was undertaken, but it was canceled after it was determined that the stored aircraft were in a generally poor condition, making their refurbishment more costly than forecast. When the U.S. Navy issued a requirement for a fleet defense missile fighter in 1959, Douglas responded with
8541-471: The fuselage, and in the beginning not all the engineering problems were fully understood. The world's first commercial jet airliner was the British de Havilland Comet (1949) designed with a service ceiling of 36,000 ft (11,000 m). It was the first time that a large diameter, pressurized fuselage with windows had been built and flown at this altitude. Initially, the design was very successful but two catastrophic airframe failures in 1954 resulting in
8658-420: The low-slung air intakes that made it vulnerable to foreign object damage (FOD). The F3D was not intended to be a typical sleek and nimble dogfighter, but as a standoff night fighter, being outfitted with a powerful radar system and a second crew member. It originated in 1945 with a US Navy requirement for a jet-powered, radar-equipped, carrier-based night fighter. The Douglas team led by Ed Heinemann designed
8775-461: The majority of newly designed commercial aircraft. Aircraft manufacturers can apply for a relaxation of this rule if the circumstances warrant it. In 2004, Airbus acquired an FAA exemption to allow the cabin altitude of the A380 to reach 43,000 ft (13,106 m) in the event of a decompression incident and to exceed 40,000 ft (12,192 m) for one minute. This allows the A380 to operate at
8892-439: The maximum operating altitude of the aircraft. This mandatory maximum cabin altitude does not eliminate all physiological problems; passengers with conditions such as pneumothorax are advised not to fly until fully healed, and people suffering from a cold or other infection may still experience pain in the ears and sinuses. The rate of change of cabin altitude strongly affects comfort as humans are sensitive to pressure changes in
9009-628: The metal fatigue cracks that destroyed the Comets were initiated by the small radius corners on the Comet 1's almost square windows. The Comet fuselage was redesigned and the Comet 4 (1958) went on to become a successful airliner, pioneering the first transatlantic jet service, but the program never really recovered from these disasters and was overtaken by the Boeing 707. Even following the Comet disasters, there were several subsequent catastrophic fatigue failures attributed to cabin pressurisation. Perhaps
9126-505: The missiles. In the late 1950s, a number of Marine F3D-2s were re-configured as electronic warfare aircraft and were accordingly redesignated F3D-2Q (later EF-10B ). Several aircraft were also converted for use as trainers and were thus redesignated F3D-2T . Some of these aircraft were outfitted with a single 10" photography camera, mounted in the tail section, for aerial reconnaissance . During 1959, Ed Heinemann proposed that Douglas refurbish retired F3Ds for civil use, reasoning that
9243-527: The model number (e.g., KC-767A ) or have kept the design number when they are transferred from one series to another (e.g., the X-35 became the F-35 ). Different versions of the same basic aircraft type are to be delineated using a single letter suffix beginning with " A " and increasing sequentially (skipping " I " and " O " to avoid confusion with the numbers " 1 " and " 0 "). It is not clear how much modification
9360-421: The most prominent example was Aloha Airlines Flight 243 , involving a Boeing 737-200 . In this case, the principal cause was the continued operation of the specific aircraft despite having accumulated 35,496 flight hours prior to the accident, those hours included over 89,680 flight cycles (takeoffs and landings), owing to its use on short flights; this amounted to more than twice the number of flight cycles that
9477-505: The number of USMC Skyknights in Korea was doubled to 24; this increase allowed them to effectively escort B-29 Superfortresses on night bombing missions. On 12 January 1953, an F3D-2 of VMF(N)-513 that was escorting B-29s on a night bombing mission was vectored to a contact and shot down the fourth aircraft by a Skyknight. By the end of the war, Skyknights had claimed six enemy aircraft (one Polikarpov Po-2, one Yakovlev Yak-15 and four MiG-15s). In May 1953, Composite Squadron 4 Detachment 44N
9594-469: The number series were restarted, causing some redesignated naval aircraft and subsequent new designs to overlap disused USAAC/USAAF designations (e.g., the Lockheed F-5 and Northrop F-5 ). Numbers were not to be assigned to avoid confusion with other letter sequences or to conform with manufacturers' model numbers. Recently this rule has been ignored, and aircraft have received a design number equal to
9711-460: The order of the letters or use new acronym based letters (e.g. SR) rather than existing ones. Non-systematic designations are both official and correct, since the DOD has final authority to approve such designations. The design number " 13 " has been skipped in many mission and vehicle series for its association with superstition . Some numbers were skipped when a number was requested and/or assigned to
9828-414: The outer skin, mandatory structural sampling was routinely conducted by operators; the need to inspect areas not easily viewable by the naked eye led to the introduction of widespread radiography examination in aviation; this also had the advantage of detecting cracks and flaws too small to be seen otherwise. Another visibly noticeable legacy of the Comet disasters is the oval windows on every jet airliner;
9945-528: The packs if it is needed to warm a section of the cabin that is colder than others. At least two engines provide compressed bleed air for all the plane's pneumatic systems, to provide full redundancy . Compressed air is also obtained from the auxiliary power unit (APU), if fitted, in the event of an emergency and for cabin air supply on the ground before the main engines are started. Most modern commercial aircraft today have fully redundant, duplicated electronic controllers for maintaining pressurization along with
10062-440: The passengers for routine flights. In 1921, a Wright-Dayton USD-9A reconnaissance biplane was modified with the addition of a completely enclosed air-tight chamber that could be pressurized with air forced into it by small external turbines. The chamber had a hatch only 22 in (560 mm) in diameter that would be sealed by the pilot at 3,000 ft (914 m). The chamber contained only one instrument, an altimeter, while
10179-429: The pilot discovered at 3,000 ft (914 m) that he was too short to close the chamber hatch. The first successful flight was finally made by test pilot Lt. Harrold Harris, making it the world's first flight by a pressurized aircraft. The first airliner to enter commercial service with a pressurized cabin was the Boeing 307 Stratoliner , built in 1938, prior to World War II , though only ten were produced before
10296-457: The pressure was kept at slightly higher than sea level at a constant 5.3 psi (0.37 bar) above ambient for Gemini, and 2 psi (0.14 bar) above sea level at launch for Apollo), and transitioned to the space cabin altitude during ascent. However, the high pressure pure oxygen atmosphere before launch proved to be a factor in a fatal fire hazard in Apollo, contributing to the deaths of
10413-499: The pressurization system". In the event of a decompression that results from "any failure condition not shown to be extremely improbable", the plane must be designed such that occupants will not be exposed to a cabin altitude exceeding 25,000 ft (7,620 m) for more than 2 minutes, nor to an altitude exceeding 40,000 ft (12,192 m) at any time. In practice, that new Federal Aviation Regulations amendment imposes an operational ceiling of 40,000 ft (12,000 m) on
10530-399: The proper cabin pressure altitude by constantly adjusting the outflow valve position so that the cabin altitude is as low as practical without exceeding the maximum pressure differential limit on the fuselage. The pressure differential varies between aircraft types, typical values are between 540 hPa (7.8 psi ) and 650 hPa (9.4 psi ). At 39,000 ft (11,887 m),
10647-983: The radar manufacturer Westinghouse . Yet another TF-10B was modified with the nose from an A-4 Skyhawk . In 1968, three Skyknights were transferred to the U.S. Army. These aircraft were operated by the Raytheon Corporation at Holloman AFB where they were used testing at the White Sands Missile Range into the 1980s; they were the last flyable Skyknights. [REDACTED] United States Data from McDonnell Douglas aircraft since 1920 : Volume I , Standard Aircraft Characteristics : F3D-2 Skyknight General characteristics Performance Armament Avionics Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system The Tri-Service aircraft designation system
10764-410: The rate of decompression in the event of a window seal failing. The high cruising altitude also required the use of high pressure oxygen and demand valves at the emergency masks unlike the continuous-flow masks used in conventional airliners. The FAA, which enforces minimum emergency descent rates for aircraft, determined that, in relation to Concorde's higher operating altitude, the best response to
10881-488: The same atmospheric pressure according to a standard atmospheric model such as the International Standard Atmosphere . Thus a cabin altitude of zero would have the pressure found at mean sea level, which is taken to be 101,325 Pa (14.696 psi; 29.921 inHg). In airliners , cabin altitude during flight is kept above sea level in order to reduce stress on the pressurized part of
10998-785: The same aircraft. The Tri-Service aircraft designation system was presented alongside the 1963 rocket and guided missile designation system in Air Force Regulation (AFR) 82-1/Army Regulation (AR) 70-50/Naval Material Command Instruction (NAVMATINST) 8800.4A (published 27 March 1974) and the two systems have been concurrently presented and maintained in joint publications since. The most recent changes were mandated by Joint Regulation 4120.15E Designating and Naming Military Aerospace Vehicles and were implemented via Air Force Instruction (AFI) 16-401, Army Regulation (AR) 70-50, Naval Air Systems Command Instruction (NAVAIRINST) 13100.16 on 3 November 2020. The list of military aircraft
11115-757: The ship. After each take-off the deck hands would rush out onto the deck and put out the smoldering fires. After several of these fire drills, the Ship's Captain insisted that VC-4 be transferred to the mainland and join up with VMF(N) 513. On 23 June 1953, VC4 (DET44N) joined with VMF(N) 513 at K-6 Airbase south of Seoul. The mission of VC-4 DET44N as directed by Commander Task Force NINETY-ONE and as employed as an integral part of Marine All Weather Fighter Squadron 513 based ashore, providing night fighter escort for U.S. Air Force medium bomber (B-50) strikes on targets in North Korea and providing night combat air patrols in
11232-441: The supersonic airliner Concorde had a particularly high pressure differential due to flying at unusually high altitude: up to 60,000 ft (18,288 m) while maintaining a cabin altitude of 6,000 ft (1,829 m). This increased airframe weight and saw the use of smaller cabin windows intended to slow the decompression rate if a depressurization event occurred. The Aloha Airlines Flight 243 incident in 1988, involving
11349-405: The total loss of the aircraft, passengers and crew grounded what was then the entire world jet airliner fleet. Extensive investigation and groundbreaking engineering analysis of the wreckage led to a number of very significant engineering advances that solved the basic problems of pressurized fuselage design at altitude. The critical problem proved to be a combination of an inadequate understanding of
11466-490: The use of composite airframes has aided the adoption of such comfort-maximizing practices. Pressurization becomes increasingly necessary at altitudes above 10,000 ft (3,048 m) above sea level to protect crew and passengers from the risk of a number of physiological problems caused by the low outside air pressure above that altitude. For private aircraft operating in the US, crew members are required to use oxygen masks if
11583-517: The vacuum of space, and also because an inert nitrogen mass must be carried. Care must also be taken to avoid decompression sickness when cosmonauts perform extravehicular activity , as current soft space suits are pressurized with pure oxygen at relatively low pressure in order to provide reasonable flexibility. By contrast, the United States used a pure oxygen atmosphere for its 1961 Mercury , 1965 Gemini , and 1967 Apollo spacecraft , mainly in order to avoid decompression sickness. Mercury used
11700-528: The vast majority of U.S. Coast Guard air assets included the H-code (e.g., HH-60 Jayhawk or HC-130 Hercules ). In the 21st century, the Coast Guard has used the multi-mission designation for their armed rescue helicopters ( MH-60 Jayhawk or MH-65 Dolphin ). All aircraft are to be assigned a basic mission code. In some cases, the basic mission code is replaced by one of the modified mission codes when it
11817-479: The visibility of the pilot, on a final GCA approach in heavy rain, to the curved side panel. Under such conditions of heavy rain, forward visibility is extremely poor. While the Skyknight lacked the swept wings and high subsonic performance of the MiG-15, its powerful fire control system enabled it to find and shoot down other fighters at night, while most MiG-15s could only be guided by ground-based radar. Following
11934-408: The war interrupted production. The 307's "pressure compartment was from the nose of the aircraft to a pressure bulkhead in the aft just forward of the horizontal stabilizer." World War II was a catalyst for aircraft development. Initially, the piston aircraft of World War II, though they often flew at very high altitudes, were not pressurized and relied on oxygen masks. This became impractical with
12051-502: Was also considered but decided against as their inclusion would have necessitated a jettisonable canopy, made pressurizing the cockpit more difficult, and added weight. Instead, an escape tunnel was used, similar to the arrangement used in the Douglas A-3 Skywarrior . The stick was extendable so that more force could be exerted upon it by the pilot as a fallback measure in the event of a hydraulic failure. The XF3D-1
12168-537: Was an essential component of its night fighter operations. The F3D saw service with the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps . Its primary mission was to locate and destroy enemy aircraft at night. The Skyknight was not produced in great numbers, yet it achieved numerous firsts in its role as a night fighter during the Korean War , where the type frequently escorted Boeing B-29 Superfortresses on night bombing missions. While it never achieved
12285-471: Was deployed to Korea via the U.S.S. Lake Champlain. They sailed through the Mediterranean Sea and on to the eastern Korean coast. After arriving, VC-4 flew a few patrols from the ship, but it was soon apparent that the planes were not well suited for the ships wooden deck. The exhaust nozzles on the F3D were angled slightly down and during take-off, the jet's exhaust scorched the teakwood deck of
12402-569: Was designed by Garrett AiResearch Manufacturing Company , drawing in part on licensing of patents held by Boeing for the Stratoliner. Post-war piston airliners such as the Lockheed Constellation (1943) made the technology more common in civilian service. The piston-engined airliners generally relied on electrical compressors to provide pressurized cabin air. Engine supercharging and cabin pressurization enabled aircraft like
12519-565: Was developed at Pacific Missile Test Center and early test firings were conducted at Naval Ordnance Test Station China Lake . During 1954, the F3D-2M became the first Navy jet aircraft to be fitted with an operational air-to-air missile, the Sparrow I, an all weather day/night beyond-visual-range missile that used beam riding guidance for the aircrew to control the missile's track. Only 28 aircraft (12 F3D-1Ms, and 16 F3D-2Ms) were modified to use
12636-557: Was implemented via Air Force Regulation (AFR) 66-11, Army Regulation (AR) 700-26, Bureau of Weapons Instruction (BUWEPSINST) 13100.7 on 18 September 1962. Anecdotally, the Tri-Service system was partly brought about due to Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara 's confusion and frustration with the different designation systems the Navy and Air Force used at the time which resulted in the F4H and F-110 both being used to refer to, essentially,
12753-708: Was known as "Fogbound" missions. The F3D also dropped chaff over the radar sites. The first EF-10B lost in Vietnam was to an SA-2 on 18 March 1966, while four more EF-10Bs were lost in Vietnam to accidents and unknown causes. Their mission was gradually assumed by the more capable EA-6A "Electric Intruder", an Electronic Warfare/Electronic Countermeasures (EW/ECM) variant of the Grumman A-6 Intruder attack bomber. The EF-10B Skyknight continued to fly lower–threat EW missions until they were withdrawn from South Vietnam in October 1969. The U.S. Navy's EKA-3 Skywarrior and
12870-524: Was maintained via 4120.15-L Model Designation of Military Aerospace Vehicles until its transition to data.af.mil on 31 August 2018. The system uses a Mission-Design-Series (MDS) designation of the form: Of these components, only the Basic Mission , Design Number and Series Letter are mandatory. In the case of special vehicles a Vehicle Type symbol must also be included. The U.S. Air Force characterizes this designation system as "MDS", while
12987-472: Was no "H" version of the F-4 Phantom II because the aircraft type was previously designated F4H. Since the 1962 system was introduced there have been several instances of non-systematic aircraft designations and skipping of design numbers. The most common changes are to use a number from another series, or some other choice, rather than the next available number (117, 767, 71). Another is to change
13104-575: Was often equipped with radar -guided search lights , proved to be more of a threat to night time operations over Korea than the occasional MiG-15; such aircraft often acted as bait , attempting to draw the Skyknights into coordinated traps. According to Copalman, the AN/APS-28 tail warning radar unit proved quite advantageous in terms of situational awareness. The Skyknight was responsible for downing more enemy aircraft over Korea than any other single type of naval aircraft. The first air-to-air victory
13221-458: Was possible by releasing stored oxygen into the cockpit, which was released directly into an enclosed cabin and not to an oxygen mask, which was developed later. With this system flights nearing 40,000 ft (12,192 m) were possible, but the lack of atmospheric pressure at that altitude caused the pilot's heart to enlarge visibly, and many pilots reported health problems from such high altitude flights. Some early airliners had oxygen masks for
13338-581: Was recorded on the night of 2 November 1952 by a USMC F3D-2 piloted by Major William T. Stratton Jr., and his radar operator, Master Sergeant Hans C. Hoglind of VMF(N)-513 Flying Nightmares, Major Stratton shot down what he believed was a Yakovlev Yak-15 (even though no Yak-15s were reported in Korea) which was the first successful night radar interception by a jet of another jet. The Skyknight claimed its first MiG-15 kill on 8 November 1952, when Captain O.R. Davis and Warrant Officer D.F. "Ding" Fessler downed
13455-433: Was selected over a competing submission, Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation's G-75 twin-seat, four-engined, Westinghouse J30 -powered night fighter design (similar layout to their Tigercat), leading to an initial contract being issued on 3 April 1946. The US Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics (BuAer) also issued a contract to Grumman for two G-75s (BuAer designation XF9F-1 ) experimental aircraft on 11 April 1946 in case
13572-412: Was soon cancelled as it was felt that the aircraft would not be able to effectively defend itself against more nimble fighters. The supersonic General Dynamics-Grumman F-111B was subsequently developed to carry long-range missiles, was cancelled due to excessive weight and changing tactical requirements. The Grumman F-14 Tomcat later entered service in this role. Skyknights continued in service through
13689-402: Was used; while not conducive to high speed flight, it provided distortion-free external visibility, something that was particularly valued for a night fighter at that time. The design team opted not to use tip tanks due to the fuselage already permitting sufficient fuel capacity and the difficulty involved in properly combining the tanks with a folding wing mechanism. The use of ejection seats
#713286