Scientific misconduct is the violation of the standard codes of scholarly conduct and ethical behavior in the publication of professional scientific research . It is violation of scientific integrity : violation of the scientific method and of research ethics in science , including in the design , conduct , and reporting of research.
98-419: FFP may refer to: Science and technology [ edit ] Falsification, fabrication, plagiarism, three types of scientific misconduct Far-field pattern , of an antenna or other radiation source Filtering facepiece , a filtering half mask FFP standards (filtering facepiece), EU standards for protective respirator masks Free-floating planet ,
196-445: A trust game context, and in shareholder -management relations. Since the mid-1990s, organizational research has followed two distinct but nonexclusive paradigms of trust research: Together, these paradigms predict how different dimensions of trust form in organizations by demonstrating various trustworthiness attributes. In systems , a trusted component has a set of properties that another component can rely on. If A trusts B,
294-701: A Thai political party Prima Charter (ICAO code), a defunct Polish airline Programs [ edit ] Food for Peace , a program of the United States Agency for International Development Food for Progress Program , of the United States Department of Agriculture Fair Food Program , an agreement between the Florida Tomato Growers and the Coalition of Immokalee Workers Frequent-flyer program ,
392-418: A bet on one of many contingent futures, specifically, the one that appears to deliver the greatest benefits. Once the bet is decided (i.e. trust is granted), the trustor suspends his or her disbelief, and the possibility of a negative course of action is not considered at all. Hence trust acts as a reducing agent of social complexity , allowing for cooperation . Sociology tends to focus on two distinct views:
490-434: A collective perception of trustworthiness; this has generated interest in various models of reputation. In management and organization science, trust is studied as a factor which organizational actors can manage and influence. Scholars have researched how trust develops across individual and organizational levels of analysis. They suggest a reciprocal process in which organizational structures influence people's trust and, at
588-457: A commercial sponsor. Examples include the case of Gerald Schatten who co-authored with Hwang Woo-Suk , the case of Professor Geoffrey Chamberlain named as guest author of papers fabricated by Malcolm Pearce, (Chamberlain was exonerated from collusion in Pearce's deception) – and the coauthors with Jan Hendrik Schön at Bell Laboratories. More recent cases include that of Charles Nemeroff, then
686-609: A correct understanding of human evolution. (The Taung Child , which should have been the death knell for the view that the human brain evolved first, was instead treated very critically because of its disagreement with the Piltdown Man evidence.) In the case of Prof Don Poldermans , the misconduct occurred in reports of trials of treatment to prevent death and myocardial infarction in patients undergoing operations. The trial reports were relied upon to issue guidelines that applied for many years across North America and Europe. In
784-460: A critical role in dealing with suspected misconduct. This is recognised by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) which has issued clear guidelines on the form (e.g. retraction) that concerns over the research record should take. Evidence emerged in 2012 that journals learning of cases where there is strong evidence of possible misconduct, with issues potentially affecting a large portion of
882-657: A decrease in transactional costs can be used as an indicator of the economic value of trust. Economic "trust games" empirically quantify trust in relationships under laboratory conditions. Several games and game-like scenarios related to trust have been tried, with certain preferences to those that allow the estimation of confidence in monetary terms. In games of trust the Nash equilibrium differs from Pareto optimum so that no player alone can maximize their own utility by altering their selfish strategy without cooperation. Cooperating partners can also benefit. The classical version of
980-503: A difference between trust and reliance by saying that trust can be betrayed, whereas reliance can only be disappointed. Carolyn McLeod explains Baier's argument with the following examples: we can rely on our clock to give the time, but we do not feel betrayed when it breaks, thus, we cannot say that we trusted it; we are not trusting when we are suspicious of another person, because this is in fact an expression of distrust. The violation of trust warrants this sense of betrayal. Thus, trust
1078-746: A fraudulent research paper in The Lancet claiming links between the MMR vaccine , autism , and inflammatory bowel disease . In 2010, he was found guilty of dishonesty in his research and banned from medicine by the UK General Medical Council following an investigation by Brian Deer of the London Sunday Times . The claims in Wakefield's paper were widely reported, leading to a sharp drop in vaccination rates in
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#17327732270821176-424: A friend to arrive to dinner late because she has habitually arrived late for the last fifteen years is a confident expectation (whether or not we find her late arrivals to be annoying). The trust is not about what we wish for, but rather it is in the consistency of the data. As a result, there is no risk or sense of betrayal because the data exists as collective knowledge. Faulkner contrasts such "predictive trust" with
1274-441: A function of the "machine heuristic"—a mental shortcut with which people assume that machines are less biased, more accurate, and more reliable than people —such that people may sometimes trust a robot more than a person. People are disposed to trust and to judge the trustworthiness of other people or groups—for instance, in developing relationships with potential mentors . One example would be as part of interprofessional work in
1372-466: A loyalty program Other uses [ edit ] First Floor Power , a Swedish rock band UEFA Financial Fair Play Regulations , in European association football, rules governing clubs' financial practices Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title FFP . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change
1470-492: A motivation to suppress any evidence or suggestion of misconduct. Persons who expose such cases, commonly called whistleblowers , find themselves open to retaliation by a number of different means. These negative consequences for exposers of misconduct have driven the development of whistle blowers charters – designed to protect those who raise concerns ( for more details refer to retaliation (law) ). Title 10 Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) Part 50.5, Deliberate Misconduct of
1568-507: A policy would hold authors more accountable for the accuracy of their data and potentially reduce scientific fraud or misconduct." The vast majority of cases of scientific misconduct may not be reported. The number of article retractions in 2022 was nearly 5,500, but Ivan Oransky and Adam Marcus, co-founders of Retraction Watch , estimate that at least 100,000 retractions should occur every year, with only about one in five being due to "honest error". In 1998 Andrew Wakefield published
1666-483: A portion or none of their money to another. Any amount given would be tripled and the receiver would then decide whether they would return the favor by giving money back to the sender. This was meant to test trusting behavior on the sender's part and the receiver's eventual trustworthiness. Empirical research demonstrates that when group membership is salient to both parties, trust is granted more readily to in-group members than out-group members. This occurs even when
1764-420: A process will explain (and allow to model) the emergence of trust. Sociology acknowledges that the contingency of the future creates a dependency between social actors and, specifically, that the trustor becomes dependent on the trustee. Trust is seen as one of the possible methods to resolve such a dependency, being an attractive alternative to control. Trust is valuable if the trustee is much more powerful than
1862-671: A propensity to trust a member of the in-group more than a member of the out-group. It is only advantageous for one to form such expectations of an in-group stranger if the stranger also knows one's own group membership. The social identity approach has been empirically investigated. Researchers have employed allocator studies to understand group-based trust in strangers. They may be operationalized as unilateral or bilateral relationships of exchange. General social categories such as university affiliation, course majors, and even ad-hoc groups have been used to distinguish between in-group and out-group members. In unilateral studies of trust,
1960-403: A robust manner, or act on the findings of such investigations if they vindicate the allegation. Well publicised cases illustrate the potential role that senior academics in research institutions play in concealing scientific misconduct. A King's College (London) internal investigation showed research findings from one of their researchers to be 'at best unreliable, and in many cases spurious' but
2058-542: A rogue planet Fresh frozen plasma , a blood product Organisations [ edit ] Family First Party , an Australian political party Feminists Fighting Pornography , an American political activist organization Fisher Flying Products , a Canadian aircraft manufacturer Food for the Poor , an American charity Freedom Front Plus , a South African political party Fund for Peace , an American research and educational organization Future Forward Party ,
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#17327732270822156-526: A set of data appear to be too faithful to the hypothesis, i.e., the amount of error that would normally be in such measurements does not appear, a conclusion can be drawn that the data may have been forged. Error analysis alone is typically not sufficient to prove that data have been falsified or fabricated, but it may provide the supporting evidence necessary to confirm suspicions of misconduct. Kirby Lee and Lisa Bero suggest, "Although reviewing raw data can be difficult, time-consuming and expensive, having such
2254-402: A violation in B's properties might compromise A's correct operation. Observe that those properties of B trusted by A might not correspond quantitatively or qualitatively to B's actual properties. This occurs when the designer of the overall system does not consider the relation. Consequently, trust should be placed to the extent of the component's trustworthiness. The trustworthiness of a component
2352-536: Is a heuristic decision rule, allowing a person to deal with complexities that would require unrealistic effort in rational reasoning. Types of trust identified in academic literature include contractual trust, competence trust and goodwill trust. American lawyer Charles Fried speaks of "contractual trust" as a "humdrum" experience based on the voluntary acceptance of contractual obligations: for example, people keep appointments and undertake commercial transactions . "Competence trust" can be defined as "a belief in
2450-578: Is attributable to relationships between social actors, both individuals and groups (social systems). Sociology is concerned with the position and role of trust in social systems. Interest in trust has grown significantly since the early 1980s, from the early works of Luhmann, Barber, and Giddens (see Sztompka for a more detailed overview). This growth of interest in trust has been stimulated by ongoing changes in society, known as late modernity and post-modernity . Sviatoslav contended that society needs trust because it increasingly finds itself operating at
2548-410: Is different from reliance in the sense that a trustor accepts the risk of being betrayed. Karen Jones proposed an emotional aspect to trust— optimism that the trustee will do the right thing by the trustor, which is also described as "affective trust". People sometimes trust others even without this optimistic expectation, instead hoping that by extending trust this will prompt trustworthy behavior in
2646-469: Is facial resemblance. Experimenters who digitally manipulated facial resemblance in a two-person sequential trust game found evidence that people have more trust in a partner who has similar facial features . Facial resemblance also decreased sexual desire for a partner. In a series of tests, digitally manipulated faces were presented to subjects who evaluated them for attractiveness within a long-term or short-term relationship. The results showed that within
2744-640: Is limited to trust in the father. People may trust non-human agents. For instance, people may trust animals, the scientific process, and social machines . Trust helps create a social contract that allows humans and domestic animals to live together. Trust in the scientific process is associated with increased trust in innovations such as biotechnology. When it comes to trust in social machines, people are more willing to trust intelligent machines with humanoid morphologies and female cues, when they are focused on tasks (versus socialization), and when they behave morally well. More generally, they may be trusted as
2842-455: Is lost by violation of one of these three determinants, it is very hard to regain. There is asymmetry in the building versus destruction of trust. Research has been conducted into the social implications of trust, for instance: Despite the centrality of trust to the positive functioning of people and relationships, very little is known about how and why trust evolves, is maintained, and is destroyed. One factor that enhances trust among people
2940-472: Is of particular interest since it can frequently be detected by external parties. In 2006, the Journal of Cell Biology gained publicity for instituting tests to detect photo manipulation in papers that were being considered for publication. This was in response to the increased usage of programs such as Adobe Photoshop by scientists, which facilitate photo manipulation. Since then more publishers, including
3038-664: Is subject to a statute of limitations. Other private organizations like the Committee of Medical Journal Editors (COJE) can only police their own members. According to David Goodstein of Caltech , there are motivators for scientists to commit misconduct, which are briefly summarised here. The U.S. National Science Foundation defines three types of research misconduct: fabrication , falsification, and plagiarism . Other types of research misconduct are also recognized: Compared to other forms of scientific misconduct, image fraud (manipulation of images to distort their meaning)
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3136-472: Is the foundation on which these forms can be modeled. For an act to be an expression of trust, it must not betray the expectations of the trustee. Some philosophers, such as Lagerspetz, argue that trust is a kind of reliance, though not merely reliance. Gambetta argued that trust is the inherent belief that others generally have good intentions, which is the foundation for our reliance on them. Philosophers such as Annette Baier challenged this view, asserting
3234-572: Is to deter and penalize intentional wrongdoing (i.e., violations). 10 CFR 50.9 is crucial in maintaining transparency and reliability in the nuclear industry, which effectively emphasizes honesty and integrity in maintaining the safety and security of nuclear operations. Providing false or misleading information or data to the NRC is therefore a violation of 10 CFR 50.9. Violation of any of these rules can lead to severe penalties, including termination , fines and criminal prosecution . It can also result in
3332-651: Is truly concerned about them or the relationship. People in low trust relationships tend to make distress-maintaining attributions whereby they place their greatest focus on the consequences of their partner's negative behavior, and any impacts of positive actions are minimized. This feeds into the overarching notion that the person's partner is uninterested in the relationship, and any positive acts on their part are met with skepticism , leading to further negative outcomes. Distrusting people may miss opportunities for trusting relationships. Someone subject to an abusive childhood may have been deprived of any evidence that trust
3430-642: Is usually regarded as misconduct, under what is known as the Ingelfinger rule, named after the editor of The New England Journal of Medicine 1967–1977, Franz Ingelfinger. Guest authorship (where there is stated authorship in the absence of involvement, also known as gift authorship) and ghost authorship (where the real author is not listed as an author) are commonly regarded as forms of research misconduct. In some cases coauthors of faked research have been accused of inappropriate behavior or research misconduct for failing to verify reports authored by others or by
3528-409: Is very difficult for people to act or come forward when they see unacceptable behavior, unless they have help from their organizations. A "User-friendly Guide," and the existence of a confidential organizational ombudsman may help people who are uncertain about what to do, or afraid of bad consequences for their speaking up. Journals are responsible for safeguarding the research record and hence have
3626-542: Is warranted in future relationships. An important key to treating sexual victimization of a child is the rebuilding of trust between parent and child. Failure by adults to validate that sexual abuse occurred contributes to the child's difficulty in trusting self and others. A child's trust can also be affected by the erosion of the marriage of their parents. Children of divorce do not exhibit less trust in mothers, partners, spouses, friends, and associates than their peers of intact families. The impact of parental divorce
3724-537: Is when researchers from wealthier countries go to a developing country , collect information, travel back to their country, analyze the data and samples, and publish the results with no or little involvement of local researchers. A 2003 study by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences found that 70% of articles in a random sample of publications about least-developed countries did not include a local research co-author. Frequently, during this kind of research,
3822-483: The Nature Publishing Group , have instituted similar tests and require authors to minimize and specify the extent of photo manipulation when a manuscript is submitted for publication. However, there is little evidence to indicate that such tests are applied rigorously. One Nature paper published in 2009 has subsequently been reported to contain around 20 separate instances of image fraud. Although
3920-466: The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulations, addresses the prohibition of certain activities by individual involved in NRC-licensed activities. 10 CFR 50.5 is designed to ensure the safety and integrity of nuclear operations. 10 CFR Part 50.9, Completeness and Accuracy of Information , focuses on the requirements for providing information and data to the NRC. The intent of 10 CFR 50.5
4018-558: The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas is Déjà vu , an open-access database containing several thousand instances of duplicate publication. All of the entries in the database were discovered through the use of text data mining algorithm eTBLAST , also created in Dr. Garner's laboratory. The creation of Déjà vu and the subsequent classification of several hundred articles contained therein have ignited much discussion in
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4116-549: The neurobiological structure and activity of a human brain. Some studies indicate that trust can be altered by the application of oxytocin . The social identity approach explains a person's trust in strangers as a function of their group-based stereotypes or in-group favoring behaviors which they base on salient group memberships . With regard to ingroup favoritism, people generally think well of strangers but expect better treatment from in-group members in comparison to out-group members. This greater expectation translates into
4214-408: The revocation of licenses or certifications, thereby barring individuals or entities from participating in any NRC-licensed activities in the future. With the advancement of the internet, there are now several tools available to aid in the detection of plagiarism and multiple publication within biomedical literature. One tool developed in 2006 by researchers in Dr. Harold Garner 's laboratory at
4312-530: The Journal by Dr. Fujii should not have been published without first vetting the allegations of fraud. In April 2012 Shafer led a group of editors to write a joint statement, in the form of an ultimatum made available to the public, to a large number of academic institutions where Fujii had been employed, offering these institutions the chance to attest to the integrity of the bulk of the allegedly fraudulent papers. The consequences of scientific fraud vary based on
4410-471: The UK and Ireland and outbreaks of mumps and measles . Promotion of the claimed link continues to fuel the anti-vaccination movement . In 2011 Diederik Stapel , a highly regarded Dutch social psychologist was discovered to have fabricated data in dozens of studies on human behaviour. He has been called "the biggest con man in academic science". In 2020, Sapan Desai and his coauthors published two papers in
4508-404: The aforementioned affective trust, proposing that predictive trust may only warrant disappointment as a consequence of an inaccurate prediction, not a sense of betrayal. Trust in economics explains the difference between actual human behavior and behavior that could be explained by people's desire to maximize utility. In economic terms, trust can explain a difference between Nash equilibrium and
4606-474: The authors of all charges of misconduct. Undeterred by the NCCS exoneration, the relevant journal ( Journal of Biological Chemistry ) withdrew the paper based on its own analysis. Some academics believe that scientific colleagues who suspect scientific misconduct should consider taking informal action themselves, or reporting their concerns. This question is of great importance since much research suggests that it
4704-426: The authors to have seen scientific data involve collaborative research between scientists and biotechnology companies. In general, defining whether an individual is guilty of misconduct requires a detailed investigation by the individual's employing academic institution. Such investigations require detailed and rigorous processes and can be extremely costly. Furthermore, the more senior the individual under suspicion,
4802-408: The best interests of the other person or the relationship while rejecting a conflicting option which is merely in their self-interest . Trust-diagnostic situations occur throughout everyday life, though they can also be deliberately engineered by people who want to test the current level of trust in a relationship. A low-trust relationship is one in which a person has little confidence their partner
4900-570: The careers of local scientists. This form of "colonial" science has reverberations of 19th century scientific practices of treating non-Western participants as "others" in order to advance colonialism —and critics call for the end of these extractivist practices in order to decolonize knowledge . All authors of a scientific publication are expected to have made reasonable attempts to check findings submitted to academic journals for publication. Simultaneous submission of scientific findings to more than one journal or duplicate publication of findings
4998-454: The case of Dr Alfred Steinschneider, two decades and tens of millions of research dollars were lost trying to find the elusive link between infant sleep apnea, which Steinschneider said he had observed and recorded in his laboratory, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), of which he stated it was a precursor. The cover was blown in 1994, 22 years after Steinschneider's 1972 Pediatrics paper claiming such an association, when Waneta Hoyt ,
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#17327732270825096-479: The college took no action, such as retracting relevant published research or preventing further episodes from occurring. In a more recent case an internal investigation at the National Centre for Cell Science (NCCS), Pune determined that there was evidence of misconduct by Gopal Kundu , but an external committee was then organised which dismissed the allegation, and the NCCS issued a memorandum exonerating
5194-474: The context of a short-term relationship dependent on sexual desire, similar facial features caused a decrease in desire. Within the context of a long-term relationship, which is dependent on trust, similar facial features increased a person's attractiveness. This suggests that facial resemblance and trust have great effects on relationships. Interpersonal trust literature investigates "trust-diagnostic situations": situations that test partners' abilities to act in
5292-467: The degree to which one party trusts another is a measure of belief in the honesty, fairness, or benevolence of another party. The term "confidence" is more appropriate for a belief in the competence of the other party. A failure in trust may be forgiven more easily if it is interpreted as a failure of competence rather than a lack of benevolence or honesty. In economics , trust is often conceptualized as reliability in transactions. In all cases, trust
5390-438: The digital economy and the desire to understand buyers' and sellers' decisions to trust one another. For example, interpersonal relationships between buyers and sellers have been disintermediated by the technology, and consequentially they required improvement. Websites can influence the buyer to trust the seller, regardless of the seller's actual trustworthiness. Reputation-based systems can improve trust assessment by capturing
5488-550: The distribution of gains can be used to manipulate the perceptions of both players. The game can be played by several players on the closed market, with or without information about reputation. Other interesting games include binary-choice trust games and the gift-exchange game. Games based on the Prisoner's Dilemma link trust with economic utility and demonstrate the rationality behind reciprocity. The popularization of e-commerce led to new challenges related to trust within
5586-408: The edge between confidence in what is known from everyday experience and contingency of new possibilities. Without trust, one should always consider all contingent possibilities, leading to paralysis by analysis . Trust acts as a decisional heuristic, allowing the decision-maker to overcome bounded rationality and process what would otherwise be an excessively complex situation. Trust can be seen as
5684-888: The editor-in-chief of Neuropsychopharmacology , and a well-documented case involving the drug Actonel . Authors are expected to keep all study data for later examination even after publication. The failure to keep data may be regarded as misconduct. Some scientific journals require that authors provide information to allow readers to determine whether the authors might have commercial or non-commercial conflicts of interest. Authors are also commonly required to provide information about ethical aspects of research, particularly where research involves human or animal participants or use of biological material. Provision of incorrect information to journals may be regarded as misconduct. Financial pressures on universities have encouraged this type of misconduct. The majority of recent cases of alleged misconduct involving undisclosed conflicts of interest or failure of
5782-435: The findings, frequently fail to issue an expression of concern or correspond with the host institution so that an investigation can be undertaken. In one case, Nature allowed a corrigendum to be published despite clear evidence of image fraud. Subsequent retraction of the paper required the actions of an independent whistleblower. The cases of Joachim Boldt and Yoshitaka Fujii in anaesthesiology focussed attention on
5880-428: The first two years of life. Success results in feelings of security and optimism, while failure leads towards an orientation of insecurity and mistrust possibly resulting in attachment disorders . A person's dispositional tendency to trust others can be considered a personality trait and as such is one of the strongest predictors of subjective well-being. Trust increases subjective well-being because it enhances
5978-468: The flow of money, its volume, and its character is attributable entirely to the existence of trust. Such a game can be played as a once-off, or repeatedly with the same or different sets of players to distinguish between a general propensity to trust and trust within particular relationships. Several variants of this game exist. Reversing rules leads to the game of distrust, pre-declarations can be used to establish intentions of players, while alterations to
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#17327732270826076-487: The following sample definitions, reproduced in The COPE report 1999: The consequences of scientific misconduct can be damaging for perpetrators and journal audience and for any individual who exposes it. In addition there are public health implications attached to the promotion of medical or other interventions based on false or fabricated research findings. Scientific misconduct can result in loss of public trust in
6174-401: The game of trust has been described as an abstract investment game, using the scenario of an investor and a broker. The investor can invest some fraction of his money, and the broker can return to the investor some fraction of the investor's gains. If both players follow their naive economic best interest, the investor should never invest, and the broker will never be able to repay anything. Thus
6272-448: The in-group's stereotype was comparatively less positive than the out-group's (e.g. psychology versus nursing majors) , in the absence of personal identity cues , and when participants had the option of a sure sum of money (i.e. in essence opting out of the need to trust a stranger to gain some monetary reward). When only the recipient was made aware of group membership, trust becomes reliant upon group stereotypes. The group with
6370-529: The integrity of science. Three percent of the 3,475 research institutions that report to the US Department of Health and Human Services ' Office of Research Integrity , indicate some form of scientific misconduct. However the ORI will only investigate allegations of impropriety where research was funded by federal grants. They routinely monitor such research publications for red flags and their investigation
6468-619: The issue was inadequate. Following publication of a letter to the editor from Kranke and colleagues in April 2000, along with a non-specific response from Dr. Fujii, there was no follow-up on the allegation of data manipulation and no request for an institutional review of Dr. Fujii's research. Anesthesia & Analgesia went on to publish 11 additional manuscripts by Dr. Fujii following the 2000 allegations of research fraud, with Editor Steven Shafer stating in March 2012 that subsequent submissions to
6566-521: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FFP&oldid=1224910200 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Scientific misconduct A Lancet review on Handling of Scientific Misconduct in Scandinavian countries provides
6664-409: The local colleagues might be used to provide logistics support as fixers but are not engaged for their expertise or given credit for their participation in the research . Scientific publications resulting from parachute science frequently only contribute to the career of the scientists from rich countries, thus limiting the development of local science capacity (such as funded research centers ) and
6762-602: The macro view of social systems, and a micro view of individual social actors (where it borders with social psychology ). Views on trust follow this dichotomy. On one side, the systemic role of trust can be discussed with a certain disregard to the psychological complexity underpinning individual trust. The behavioral approach to trust is usually assumed while actions of social actors are measurable, allowing for statistical modelling of trust. This systemic approach can be contrasted with studies on social actors and their decision-making process, in anticipation that understanding of such
6860-405: The metrics used to assess research and to stop focusing on the journal impact factor . Trust (social science) Trust is the belief that another person will do what is expected. It brings with it a willingness for one party (the trustor ) to become vulnerable to another party (the trustee ), on the presumption that the trustee will act in ways that benefit the trustor. In addition,
6958-462: The more likely it is that conflicts of interest will compromise the investigation. In many countries (with the notable exception of the United States) acquisition of funds on the basis of fraudulent data is not a legal offence and there is consequently no regulator to oversee investigations into alleged research misconduct. Universities therefore have few incentives to investigate allegations in
7056-532: The more positive stereotype was trusted (e.g. one's university affiliation over another's) even over that of the in-group (e.g. nursing over psychology majors). Another explanation for in-group-favoring behaviors could be the need to maintain in-group positive distinctiveness , particularly in the presence of social identity threat . Trust in out-group strangers increased when personal cues to identity were revealed . Many philosophers have written about different forms of trust. Most agree that interpersonal trust
7154-448: The mother of the patients in the paper, was arrested, indicted and convicted on five counts of second-degree murder for the smothering deaths of her five children. While that in itself was bad enough, the paper, presumably written as an attempt to save infants' lives, ironically was ultimately used as a defense by parents suspected in multiple deaths of their own children in cases of Münchausen syndrome by proxy . The 1972 Pediatrics paper
7252-409: The observed equilibrium. Such an approach can be applied to individual people as well as to societies. Trust is important to economists for many reasons. Taking the " Market for Lemons " transaction popularized by George Akerlof as an example, if a potential buyer of a car does not trust the seller not to sell a lemon, the transaction will not take place. The buyer will not buy without trust, even if
7350-478: The optimum level of trust that a rational economic agent should exhibit in transactions is equal to the trustworthiness of the other party. Such a level of trust leads to an efficient market. Trusting less leads to losing economic opportunities, while trusting more leads to unnecessary vulnerabilities and potential exploitation. Economics is also interested in quantifying trust, usually in monetary terms. The level of correlation between an increase in profit margin and
7448-449: The original concept of "high trust" and "low trust" societies may not necessarily hold, social trust benefits the economy and a low level of trust inhibits economic growth . The absence of trust restricts growth in employment, wages, and profits, thus reducing the overall welfare of society. The World Economic Forums of 2022 and 2024 both adopted the rebuilding of trust as their themes. Theoretical economical modelling demonstrates that
7546-539: The other's ability to do the job or complete a task"; this term is applied, for example, in relation to cultural competence in healthcare . In working relationships, "goodwill trust" has been described as "trust regarding the benevolence and integrity of [a] counterpart". Four types of social trust are recognized: Sociology claims trust is one of several social constructs ; an element of the social reality . Other constructs frequently discussed together with trust include control, confidence, risk, meaning and power. Trust
7644-553: The participant is asked to choose between envelopes containing money that an in-group or out-group member previously allocated. Participants have no prior or future opportunities for interaction, thereby testing Brewer's notion that group membership is sufficient to bring about group-based trust and hence cooperation. Participants could expect an amount ranging from nothing to the maximum value an allocator could give out. Bilateral studies of trust have employed an investment game devised by Berg and colleagues in which people choose to give
7742-590: The prestigious medical journals The Lancet and The New England Journal of Medicine , early in the COVID-19 pandemic. The papers were based on a very large dataset published by Surgisphere , a company owned by Desai. The dataset was exposed as a fabrication, and the papers were soon retracted. In 2024, Eliezer Masliah , head of the Division of Neuroscience at the National Institute on Aging ,
7840-502: The product would be of great value to the buyer. Trust can act as an economic lubricant, reducing the cost of transactions between parties, enabling new forms of cooperation, and generally furthering business activities, employment, and prosperity. This observation prompted interest in trust as a form of social capital and research into the process of creation and distribution of such capital. A higher level of social trust may be positively correlated with economic development : Even though
7938-592: The quality of one's interpersonal relationships; happy people are skilled at fostering good relationships. Trust is integral to the idea of social influence : it is easier to influence or persuade someone who is trusting. The notion of trust is increasingly adopted to predict acceptance of behaviors by others, institutions (e.g. government agencies ), and objects such as machines. Yet once again, perceptions of honesty, competence and value similarity (slightly similar to benevolence) are essential. There are three forms of trust commonly studied in psychology: Once trust
8036-446: The rather modest size of the [overall negative relationship] implies that apocalyptic claims regarding the severe threat of ethnic diversity for social trust in contemporary societies are exaggerated." In psychology, trust is believing that the trusted person will do what is expected . According to the psychoanalyst Erik Erikson , development of basic trust is the first state of psychosocial development occurring, or failing, during
8134-507: The referral pathway from an emergency department to a hospital ward. Another would be building knowledge on whether new practices, people, and things introduced into our lives are indeed accountable or worthy of investing confidence and trust in. This process is captured by the empirically grounded construct of "Relational Integration" within Normalization Process Theory . This can be traced in neuroscience terms to
8232-582: The role that journals play in perpetuating scientific fraud as well as how they can deal with it. In the Boldt case, the editors-in-chief of 18 specialist journals (generally anaesthesia and intensive care) made a joint statement regarding 88 published clinical trials conducted without Ethics Committee approval. In the Fujii case, involving nearly 200 papers, the journal Anesthesia & Analgesia , which published 24 of Fujii's papers, has accepted that its handling of
8330-440: The same time, people's trust manifests in organizational structures. Trust is also one of the conditions of an organizational culture that supports knowledge sharing . An organizational culture that supports knowledge sharing allows employees to feel secure and comfortable to share their knowledge, their work, and their expertise. Structure often creates trust in a person, and this encourages them to feel comfortable and excel in
8428-571: The scientific community concerning issues such as ethical behavior , journal standards, and intellectual copyright. Studies on this database have been published in journals such as Nature and Science , among others. Other tools which may be used to detect fraudulent data include error analysis . Measurements generally have a small amount of error, and repeated measurements of the same item will generally result in slight differences in readings. These differences can be analyzed, and follow certain known mathematical and statistical properties. Should
8526-507: The second employs system-like constructs, such as usefulness, reliability, and functionality. The discussion surrounding the relationship between information technologies and trust is still in progress as research remains in its infant stages. Several dozen studies have examined the impact of ethnic diversity on social trust. Research published in the Annual Review of Political Science concluded that there were three key debates on
8624-415: The severity of the fraud, the level of notice it receives, and how long it goes undetected. For cases of fabricated evidence, the consequences can be wide-ranging, with others working to confirm (or refute) the false finding, or with research agendas being distorted to address the fraudulent evidence. The Piltdown Man fraud is a case in point: The significance of the bona-fide fossils that were being found
8722-420: The subject: The review's meta-analysis of 87 studies showed a consistent, though modest, negative relationship between ethnic diversity and social trust. Ethnic diversity has the strongest negative impact on neighbor trust, in-group trust, and generalized trust. It did not appear to have a significant impact on out-group trust. The authors present a warning about the modest size of the effect, stating, "However,
8820-402: The trustee. This is known as "therapeutic trust" and gives both the trustee a reason to be trustworthy, and the trustor a reason to believe they are trustworthy. The definition of trust as a belief in something or a confident expectation about something eliminates the notion of risk because it does not include whether the expectation or belief is favorable or unfavorable. For example, to expect
8918-440: The trustor can only develop and evaluate expectations. Such expectations are formed with a view to the motivations of the trustee, dependent on their characteristics, the situation, and their interaction. The uncertainty stems from the risk of failure or harm to the trustor if the trustee does not behave as desired. In the social sciences, the subtleties of trust are a subject of ongoing research. In sociology and psychology ,
9016-402: The trustor does not have control over the actions of the trustee. Scholars distinguish between generalized trust (also known as social trust), which is the extension of trust to a relatively large circle of unfamiliar others, and particularized trust, which is contingent on a specific situation or a specific relationship. As the trustor is uncertain about the outcome of the trustee's actions,
9114-452: The trustor, yet the trustor is under social obligation to support the trustee. Modern information technologies have not only facilitated the transition to a post-modern society but have also challenged traditional views on trust. Information systems research has identified that people have come to trust in technology via two primary constructs: The first consists of human-like constructs, including benevolence, honesty, and competence, whilst
9212-499: The type of manipulation that is allowed can depend greatly on the type of experiment that is presented and also differ from one journal to another, in general the following manipulations are not allowed: Image manipulations are typically done on visually repetitive images such as those of blots and microscope images. Neo-colonial research or neo-colonial science , frequently described as helicopter research, parachute science or research, parasitic research, or safari study,
9310-458: The workplace; it makes an otherwise stressful environment manageable. Management and organization science scholars have also studied how trust is influenced by contracts and how trust interacts with formal mechanisms. Scholars in management and related disciplines have also made a case for the importance of distrust as a related but distinct construct. Similarly scholars have assessed the relationship between monitoring and trust, for example in
9408-414: Was cited in 404 papers in the interim and is still listed on Pubmed without comment. The potentially severe consequences for individuals who are found to have engaged in misconduct also reflect on the institutions that host or employ them and also on the participants in any peer review process that has allowed the publication of questionable research. This means that a range of actors in any case may have
9506-399: Was muted for decades because they disagreed with Piltdown Man and the preconceived notions that those faked fossils supported. In addition, the prominent paleontologist Arthur Smith Woodward spent time at Piltdown each year until he died, trying to find more Piltdown Man remains. The misdirection of resources kept others from taking the real fossils more seriously and delayed the reaching of
9604-534: Was suspected of having manipulated and inappropriately reused images in over 100 scientific papers spanning several decades, including those that were used by the FDA to greenlight testing for the experimental drug prasinezumab as a treatment for Parkinson's. Since 2012, the Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA), from San Francisco, gathered many institutions, publishers, and individuals committing to improving
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