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54-545: Fataluku (also known as Dagaga , Dagoda' , Dagada ) is a Papuan language spoken by approximately 37,000 people of Fataluku ethnicity in the eastern areas of East Timor , especially around Lospalos . It is a member of the Timor-Alor-Pantar language family, which includes languages spoken both in East Timor and nearby regions of Indonesia. Fataluku's closest relative is Oirata , spoken on Kisar island, in

108-521: A cuscus possum, an antechinus , and Doria's tree-kangaroo ( Dendrolagus dorianus ). Four of these are endemic: the small marsupial black-tailed antechinus ( Murexechinus melanurus ), western shrew mouse , glacier rat , and alpine woolly rat . There are nearly 100 birds of which 28 are considered endemic or nearly so, including the vulnerable long-bearded honeyeater ( Melionyx princeps ), ribbon-tailed astrapia ( Astrapia mayeri ), and Macgregor's giant honeyeater , which although endangered generally

162-626: A single landmass for most of their human history, having been separated by the Torres Strait only 8000 years ago, and that a deep reconstruction would likely include languages from both. However, Dixon later abandoned his proto-Australian proposal, and Foley's ideas need to be re-evaluated in light of recent research. Wurm also suggested the Sepik–Ramu languages have similarities with the Australian languages, but believed this may be due to

216-827: A composite of Usher's and Ross' classifications, Palmer et al. do not address the more tentative families that Usher proposes, such as Northwest New Guinea . The coherence of the South Bird's Head , East Bird's Head , Pauwasi , Kwomtari , and Central Solomons families are uncertain, and hence are marked below as "tentative." Papuan independent language families (43 families) Papuan isolates and unclassified languages (37 total) Glottolog 4.0 (2019), based partly on Usher, recognizes 70 independent families and 55 isolates. The following families are identified by Timothy Usher and Edgar Suter in their NewGuineaWorld project: In addition, poorly attested Karami remains unclassified. Extinct Tambora and

270-406: A language, they are short and utilise a reduced set of the language's phonemic inventory . Both phenomena greatly increase the possibility of chance resemblances, especially when they are not confirmed by lexical similarities. Sorted by location north Irian : Sandaun Province : Sepik River : Bismarck Archipelago : Former isolates classified by Ross: Languages reassigned to

324-558: A large Leptomys , the eastern shrew mouse , and the lesser small-toothed rat . There are 55 bird species endemic to the mountains from a total of 348 birds found here. There are several endemic butterflies, particularly in the Weyland Mountains and the Wahgi Valley. Apart from the cultivated valleys, the montane forests are largely intact, although the logging industry is a constant threat as more and more access to

378-524: A number of instances". However, he considered this not evidence of a connection between (Great) Andamanese and Trans–New Guinea, but of a substratum from an earlier migration to New Guinea from the west. Greenberg also suggested a connection to the Tasmanian languages . However, the Tasmanian peoples were isolated for perhaps 10,000 years, their disappearance wiped out their languages before much

432-596: A single ancestral language... when a language is termed 'Papuan', this claims nothing more than that a language is not Austronesian. Most Papuan languages are spoken by hundreds to thousands of people; the most populous are found in the New Guinea Highlands , where a few exceed a hundred thousand. These include Western Dani (180,000 in 1993) and Ekari (100,000 reported 1985) in the western (Indonesian) highlands, and Enga (230,000 in 2000), Huli (150,000 reported 2011), and Melpa (130,000 reported 1991) in

486-555: A substratum effect, but nevertheless believed that the Australian languages represent a linguistic group that existed in New Guinea before the arrival of the Papuan languages (which he believed arrived in at least two different groups). The West Papuan , Lower Mamberamo , and most Torricelli languages are all left-headed , as well as the languages of New Britain and New Ireland . These languages all have SVO word order , with

540-748: The Alor archipelago to the west. The westernmost language, Tambora in Sumbawa , is extinct. One Papuan language, Meriam , is spoken within the national borders of Australia , in the eastern Torres Strait . Several languages of Flores , Sumba , and other islands of eastern Indonesia are classified as Austronesian but have large numbers of non-Austronesian words in their basic vocabulary and non-Austronesian grammatical features. It has been suggested that these may have originally been non-Austronesian languages that have borrowed nearly all of their vocabulary from neighboring Austronesian languages, but no connection with

594-571: The Australian Plate collides with the plates to the northeast, marking the southern boundaries of the Maoke and Woodlark plates. The width of the mountain range varies considerably, with a central thin segment near the borders of the two nations. The surface geology of the highlands is made up of metamorphic and intrusive igneous rocks. The metamorphic rocks were Cretaceous and Eocene ocean sediments that were uplifted and folded between

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648-906: The Austronesian family : Unclassified due to lack of data: Unaccounted for: Søren Wichmann (2013) accepts the following 109 groups as coherent Papuan families, based on computational analyses performed by the Automated Similarity Judgment Program (ASJP) combined with Harald Hammarström 's (2012) classification. Some of the groups could turn out to be related to each other, but Wichmann (2013) lists them as separate groups pending further research. 9 families have been broken up into separate groups in Wichmann's (2013) classification, which are: An automated computational analysis ( ASJP 4) by Müller, Velupillai, Wichmann et al. (2013) found lexical similarities among

702-591: The East Papuan languages have not been addressed, except to identify Yele as an Austronesian language. Joseph Greenberg proposed an Indo-Pacific phylum containing the (Northern) Andamanese languages , all Papuan languages, and the Tasmanian languages , but not the Australian Aboriginal languages . Very few linguists accept his grouping. It is distinct from the Trans–New Guinea phylum of

756-934: The Moluccas of Indonesia . Fataluku is given the status of a national language under the constitution . Speakers of Fataluku normally have a command of Tetum and/or Indonesian , those speakers who are educated under Portuguese rule or from younger generation educated under Portuguese-language educational system during independence speak Portuguese . It has a considerable number of Austronesian loanwords, and it has borrowed elements of Sanskrit and Arabic vocabulary via Malay and elements of Portuguese. The five main Fataluku dialects are identified as follows: East Fataluku, South Fataluku, Central Fataluku, North Fataluku and Northwest Fataluku. The differences that exist between these dialects, especially beyond phonology, are unclear and require more research. Dialects differ with respect to

810-479: The Takia language has. The Reef Islands – Santa Cruz languages of Wurm's East Papuan phylum were a potential 24th family, but subsequent work has shown them to be highly divergent Austronesian languages as well. Note that while this classification may be more reliable than past attempts, it is based on a single parameter, pronouns, and therefore must remain tentative. Although pronouns are conservative elements in

864-609: The Waghi Valley in the Western Highlands , Papua New Guinea are heavily cultivated and support urban settlements most of the mountains have traditional tribal village communities in the grassy mountain valleys. The PNG highland provinces are Eastern Highlands Province ; Simbu Province (or Chimbu) whose centre is the small coffee-growing town of Kundiawa on the Wahgi River near Mount Wilhelm; Jiwaka Province ;

918-666: The Western Highlands ; the rugged Enga Province the home of the Enga people with its administration in the very small town of Wabag on the Lai River , and containing the large Porgera Gold Mine ; Hela Province ; Southern Highlands Province , with its centre in the small town and airport of Mendi , and containing the Huli wigmen area around the town of Tari ; and parts of West Sepik Province and Western Province . The Highlands Highway connects many of these towns. Larger urban areas in

972-673: The Weyland Mountains starting in Wondama Bay Regency in the west to the Milne Bay Province in the east. The Central Cordillera, some peaks of which are capped with ice , consists of (from east to west): the Central Highlands and Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea including the Owen Stanley Range in the southeast, whose highest peak is Mount Victoria at 4,038 metres (13,248 feet),

1026-531: The 90 mammals found on the island, 44 are endemic, a very high proportion. The birds and animals include many Australasian species such as tree-kangaroos , bowerbirds , Australasian robins , honeyeaters , and birds of paradise. Four of the endemic mammals are critically endangered: the Bulmer's fruit bat , with only tiny communities remaining in the Papua New Guinea end of the island, and three rodents;

1080-1132: The Albert Victor Mountains, the Sir Arthur Gordon Range, and the Bismarck Range , whose highest peak is Mount Wilhelm at 4,509 metres (14,793 feet), which is an extinct volcano with a crater lake; the Star Mountains on the Papua New Guinea – Indonesia border; and the Maoke Mountains or Snow Range in Indonesia, where perpetual snow was found by H. A. Lorentz in 1909 at 4,461 m (14,635 ft), and whose highest peaks are Puncak Jaya (Mt. Carstensz) at 4,884 m (16,024 feet), Puncak Mandala (Mt. Juliana) at 4,760 m (15,610 ft) and Puncak Trikora (Mt. Wilhelmina) at 4,750 m (15,580 ft). Although some valleys such as

1134-526: The Australian languages, a later migration bringing the West Papuan, Torricelli and the East Papuan languages and a third wave bringing the most recent pre-Austronesian migration, the Trans–New Guinea family. Two of Wurm's isolates have since been linked as the and since Wurm's time another isolate and two languages belonging to a new family have been discovered, Foley summarized the state of

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1188-458: The Australian mainland. The culture of inter-tribal warfare and animosity between the neighboring tribes have long been present in the Highlands. The New Guinea Highlands are home to a great variety of Australasian plant and animal communities, distinct from the surrounding lowlands to the north and south of the central ranges and varying up and along the mountain ranges. The habitats of

1242-690: The Austronesian languages, there arguably are some 800 languages divided into perhaps sixty small language families, with unclear relationships to each other or to any other languages, plus many language isolates . The majority of the Papuan languages are spoken on the island of New Guinea, with a number spoken in the Bismarck Archipelago , Bougainville Island and the Solomon Islands to the east, and in Halmahera , Timor and

1296-557: The Eocene and early Miocene periods. There are also Pleistocene stratovolcanoes in the highlands, including Mount Hagen and Mount Giluwe . The fertile Highlands have long been inhabited and artifacts uncovered in the Ivane Valley indicate that the Highlands were first settled about 50,000 years ago. The inhabitants were nomadic foragers but around 10,000 years ago began developing a fairly advanced agricultural society. Before

1350-877: The Indonesian border including Telefomin and Strickland Gorge ; the Hunstein Range ; Mount Giluwe , a major birdwatching area for birds-of-paradise ; the volcanic limestone Kubor Range ; the Bismarck Range/Mount Wilhelm/ Schrader Range /Mount Gahavisuka , of which Mount Wilhelm is particularly rich in endemic species; and finally the Crater Mountain and Mount Michael in the Eastern Highlands. The montane rain forests (from 1,000 to 3,000m) can be further categorised into three broad vegetation zones on

1404-556: The PNG Highlands include the Western Highlands capital and PNG's 3rd largest city Mount Hagen (near the extinct Mount Hagen (volcano) ), the Eastern Highlands capital and former colonial town of Goroka , and the mining town of Tabubil . The climate is humid as you would expect of the tropical rainforested island of New Guinea, but the higher mountain slopes are of course cooler than the lowlands. The Highlands are

1458-598: The Papuan languages of Timor has been found. In general, the Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages are marked by a significant historical Papuan influence, lexically, grammatically, and phonologically, and this is responsible for much of the diversity of the Austronesian language family. The "Papuan languages" are a strictly geographical grouping, and does not imply a genetic relationship . The concept of Papuan (non-Austronesian) speaking Melanesians as distinct from Austronesian -speaking Melanesians

1512-567: The Papuan region is the Trans–New Guinea phylum , consisting of the majority of Papuan languages and running mainly along the highlands of New Guinea. The various high-level families may represent distinct migrations into New Guinea, presumably from the west. Since perhaps only a quarter of Papuan languages have been studied in detail, linguists' understanding of the relationships between them will continue to be revised. Statistical analyses designed to pick up signals too faint to be detected by

1566-601: The Wahgi Valley and Mount Hagen , and Richard Archbold in the 1930s. It was found that the highland valleys explored in the 1930s were inhabited by over a million people. During World War II , the eastern highlands saw the Kokoda Track campaign in which Australian and New Zealand soldiers, along with native guides who were pressed into service, fought and ultimately stopped the Japanese from advancing south towards Port Moresby and, ultimately, northern Queensland on

1620-524: The classifications below. Joseph Greenberg proposed that the Andamanese languages (or at least the Great Andamanese languages ) off the coast of Burma are related to the Papuan or West Papuan languages. Stephen Wurm stated that the lexical similarities between Great Andamanese and the West Papuan and Timor–Alor families "are quite striking and amount to virtual formal identity [...] in

1674-440: The comparative method, though of disputed validity, suggest five major Papuan stocks (roughly Trans–New Guinea , West , North , East , and South Papuan languages); long-range comparison has also suggested connections between selected languages, but again the methodology is not orthodox in historical linguistics. The Great Andamanese languages may be related to some western Papuan languages, but are not themselves covered by

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1728-629: The eastern (PNG) highlands. To the west of New Guinea, the largest languages are Makasae in East Timor (100,000 in 2010) and Galela in Halmahera (80,000 reported 1990). To the east, Terei (27,000 reported 2003) and Naasioi (20,000 reported 2007) are spoken on Bougainville. Although there has been relatively little study of these languages compared with the Austronesian family, there have been three preliminary attempts at large-scale genealogical classification, by Joseph Greenberg , Stephen Wurm , and Malcolm Ross . The largest family posited for

1782-540: The exception of the language isolate Kuot , which has VSO word order . All other Papuan languages are right-headed . Tonal Papuan languages include the Sko , Lepki , Kaure , Kembra , Lakes Plain , and Keuw languages. New Guinea Highlands The New Guinea Highlands , also known as the Central Range or Central Cordillera , is a long chain of mountain ranges on the island of New Guinea , including

1836-402: The families that appear when comparing pronouns may be due to pronoun borrowing rather than to genealogical relatedness. However, Ross argues that Papuan languages have closed-class pronoun systems, which are resistant to borrowing, and in any case that the massive number of languages with similar pronouns in a family like Trans–New Guinea preclude borrowing as an explanation. Also, he shows that

1890-472: The following language groups. Note that some of these automatically generated groupings are due to chance resemblances. Bill Palmer et al. (2018) propose 43 independent families and 37 language isolates in the Papuasphere, comprising a total of 862 languages. A total of 80 independent groups are recognized. While Pawley & Hammarström 's internal classification of Trans-New Guinea largely resembles

1944-450: The high mountain forest extends from 2,500 to 3,000 metres in elevation. Conifers ( Podocarpus , Dacrycarpus , Dacrydium , Papuacedrus , Araucaria , and Libocedrus ) and broadleaf trees of the myrtle family ( Myrtaceae ) form a thin canopy, with a prominent understory. The montane forests are home to a rich wildlife, a great deal of which is unique to these mountains including many plants, reptiles, and over 100 birds and animals. Of

1998-404: The influence of contact and bilingualism . Similarly, several groups that do have substantial basic vocabulary in common with Trans–New Guinea languages are excluded from the phylum because they do not resemble it grammatically. Wurm believed the Papuan languages arrived in several waves of migration with some of the earlier languages (perhaps including the Sepik–Ramu languages ) being related to

2052-556: The introduction of the sweet potato , the Highlands had distinct forms of division of labor . In the Eastern Highlands the economy was mixed, with men hunting and cultivating, and women gathering and tending crops. Populations were small, dispersed, and focused on immediate consumption. In the Western Highlands , women were focused on producing large amounts of taro , while men abandoned hunting and were instead focused on animal husbandry and trading. The introduction of

2106-478: The island's highest peak, Puncak Jaya , Indonesia , 16,024 ft (4,884 m), the highest mountain in Oceania . The range is home to many intermountain river valleys , many of which support thriving agricultural communities. The highlands run generally east-west the length of the island, which is divided politically between Indonesia in the west and Papua New Guinea in the east. These mountains stretch from

2160-757: The literature. Besides Trans–New Guinea and families possibly belonging in TNG ( see ), he accepted the proposals for, Malcolm Ross re-evaluated Wurm's proposal on purely lexical grounds. That is, he looked at shared vocabulary, and especially shared idiosyncrasies analogous to English I and me vs. German ich and mich . The poor state of documentation of Papuan languages restricts this approach largely to pronouns . Nonetheless, Ross believes that he has been able to validate much of Wurm's classification, albeit with revisions to correct for Wurm's partially typological approach. (See Trans–New Guinea languages .) Ethnologue (2009) largely follows Ross. It has been suggested that

2214-421: The lowest levels of his classification, most of which he inherited from prior taxonomies. Foley (1986) divides Papuan languages into over sixty small language families, plus a number of isolates. However, more recently Foley has accepted the broad outline if not the details of Wurm's classification, as he and Ross have substantiated a large portion of Wurm's Trans–New Guinea phylum. According to Ross (see below),

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2268-451: The main problem with Wurm's classification is that he did not take contact-induced change into account. For example, several of the main branches of his Trans–New Guinea phylum have no vocabulary in common with other Trans–New Guinea languages, and were classified as Trans–New Guinea because they are similar grammatically . However, there are also many Austronesian languages that are grammatically similar to Trans–New Guinea languages due to

2322-666: The more egalitarian New Guinea societies.) Ross has proposed 23 Papuan language families and 9–13 isolates. However, because of his more stringent criteria, he was not able to find enough data to classify all Papuan languages, especially many isolates that have no close relatives to aid in their classification. Ross also found that the Lower Mamberamo languages (or at least the Warembori language—he had insufficient data on Pauwi) are Austronesian languages that have been heavily transformed by contact with Papuan languages, much as

2376-514: The mountains have been separated into two ecoregions , depending on their elevation, the tropical montane forests and alpine grasslands, but within these broad bands there is a variety of wildlife along the island as some of the mountains stand quite a distance from others with some species of plant or animal existing on only one or two mountains. Particular centres of plant diversity are the Star Mountains area of western Papua New Guinea near

2430-671: The mountains is achieved by road building. 20% of this ecoregion is contained within protected areas, mostly in the Indonesian half of the island, including the largest protected area in Southeast Asia , the huge Lorentz National Park in the highlands, a section of which is a montane forest ecosystem. Above 3,000 metres elevation, the high mountain forest transitions to remote sub-alpine habitats including alpine meadows, conifer forest, tree-fern ( Cyathea ) grasslands, bogs, and shrubby heaths of Rhododendron , Vaccinium , Coprosma , Rapanea , and Saurauia all quite different from

2484-438: The mountains, distinguished by elevation. The lower montane forests extend from 1,000 to 1,500 metres elevation. They are dominated by broadleaf evergreen trees, including Castanopsis acuminatissima , Lithocarpus spp., elaeocarps , and laurels . Coniferous Araucarias may form thick stands. The upper montane forests, which extend from 1,500 to 2,500 metres in elevation, are dominated by moss-covered Nothofagus . Finally,

2538-459: The phonetic realization of palatal obstruents , the presence of a glottal stop phoneme and a voicing distinction in stops, as well as aspects of the stress system . In the examples below, the letter 'c' and the letter combination 'tx' are pronounced as the 'ch' in the English word 'church'. Papuan languages New Guinea is the most linguistically diverse region in the world. Besides

2592-705: The source of several important rivers including the Sepik River and Ramu River in the north and the Fly River in the south, and lakes including Lake Kutubu , near which oil has been extracted since 1992 by Chevron . Mining is also very active in the region to the detriment of indigenous groups, with frequent friction. List of highest peaks in New Guinea Highlands by elevation. List of rivers in New Guinea Highlands by length. This chain of mountains continues to rise (with corresponding quakes) as

2646-573: The sweet potato had a significant impact on animal husbandry in the area. As it could be used as pig fodder without the need for cooking, societies that adopted this new staple food were able to rapidly amass pigs. These pigs were then traded with surrounding societies, becoming the centerpiece of early economies in the area. The Highlands were not settled by the Western powers during the early colonial period and they were first visited by western zoologists and explorers, such as Mick Leahy , who opened

2700-581: The term Papuan. The most widely used classification of Papuan languages is that of Stephen Wurm , listed below with the approximate number of languages in each family in parentheses. This was the scheme used by Ethnologue prior to Ross's classification (below). It is based on very preliminary work, much of it typological , and Wurm himself has stated that he does not expect it to hold up well to scrutiny. Other linguists, including William A. Foley , have suggested that many of Wurm's phyla are based on areal features and structural similarities, and accept only

2754-432: The tropical rain forest that covers most of New Guinea. The alpine habitat above 4,000 metres consists of compact rosette plants and cushion herbs, such as Ranunculus , Potentilla , Gentiana , and Epilobium , grasses ( Poa and Deschampsia ), bryophytes , and lichens . While there are several endemic plants there are few animals on the higher slopes, with only nine mammals found here: four rodents, two bats,

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2808-559: The two cases of alleged pronoun borrowing in New Guinea are simple coincidence, explainable as regular developments from the protolanguages of the families in question: as earlier forms of the languages are reconstructed, their pronouns become less similar, not more. (Ross argues that open-class pronoun systems, where borrowings are common, are found in hierarchical cultures such as those of Southeast Asia and Japan , where pronouns indicate details of relationship and social status rather than simply being grammatical pro-forms as they are in

2862-461: Was first suggested and named by Sidney Herbert Ray in 1892. In accordance with William A. Foley (1986): The term 'Papuan languages' must not be taken in the same sense as 'Austronesian languages'. While all Austronesian languages are genetically related in one family, in the sense that they all descend from a common ancestral language called Proto-Austronesian spoken some 6,000 years ago... [Papuan languages] do not all trace their origins back to

2916-496: Was recorded of them, and few linguists expect that they will ever be linked to another language family . William A. Foley (1986) noted lexical similarities between R. M. W. Dixon 's 1980 reconstruction of proto- Australian and the languages of the East New Guinea Highlands . He believed that it was naïve to expect to find a single Papuan or Australian language family when New Guinea and Australia had been

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