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130-541: Federico Faggin ( Italian pronunciation: [fedeˈriːko fadˈdʒin] , Venetian: [faˈdʒiŋ] ; born 1 December 1941) is an Italian-American physicist, engineer, inventor and entrepreneur. He is best known for designing the first commercial microprocessor , the Intel 4004 . He led the 4004 (MCS-4) project and the design group during the first five years of Intel 's microprocessor effort. Faggin also created, while working at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968,

260-603: A laurea degree in physics , summa cum laude , from the University of Padua . Faggin joined Olivetti aged 19. There he co-designed and led the implementation of a small digital transistor computer with 4 K × 12 bit of magnetic memory (1960). The Olivetti R&D department subsequently developed one of the world's first programmable desktop electronic calculators, the Olivetti Programma 101 (1964). After this first work experience, Faggin studied physics at

390-710: A Jewish Italian immigrant, was one of the founders and first president of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New York. Also during this period, there was a growing presence of Italian Americans in higher education. Vincenzo Botta was a distinguished professor of Italian at New York University from 1856 to 1894, and Gaetano Lanza was a professor of mechanical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for over 40 years, beginning in 1871. Anthony Ghio became

520-456: A Union Flag and an Italian flag with the words Dio e popolo, meaning "God and people." In 1861, Garibaldi himself volunteered his services to President Abraham Lincoln . Garibaldi was offered a major general's commission in the U.S. Army through the letter from Secretary of State William H. Seward to H. S. Sanford , the U.S. minister at Brussels , July 17, 1861. From 1880 to 1914, 13 million Italians migrated out of Italy , making Italy

650-676: A cargo of wine, and his wife Mary, who went on to own one of the oldest coffee houses in America, the Merchant Coffee House of New York on Wall Street at Water Street. Her Merchant Coffee House moved across Wall Street in 1772, retaining the same name and patronage. Today, the descendants of the Alberti-Burtis, Taliaferro, Reggio, and other early families are found all across the United States. This period saw

780-554: A control system using the 4004. He designed and built a 4004 tester using the 4004 as the controller of the tester, thus convincing Bob Noyce to renegotiate the exclusivity clause with Busicom that didn't allow Intel to sell the MCS-4 line to other customers. In 2009, the four contributors to the 4004 were inducted as Fellows of the Computer History Museum. Ted Hoff , head of Application Research Department, formulated

910-549: A different department without Hoff's and Mazor's involvement. Faggin had invented the original SGT at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968 and provided additional refinements and inventions to make possible the implementation of the 4004 in a single chip. With routine help from Shima, Faggin completed the chip design in January 1971. The Intel 2102A is a redesign of the Intel 2102 static RAM, where Federico Faggin introduced to Intel, for

1040-603: A few small settlements. Italian navigators and explorers played a key role in the exploration and settlement of the Americas by Europeans . Genoese explorer Christopher Columbus ( Italian : Cristoforo Colombo [kriˈstɔːforo koˈlombo] ) completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean for the Catholic monarchs of Spain , opening the way for the widespread European exploration and colonization of

1170-441: A group of musicians from Sicily to form a military band, later to become the nucleus of the U.S. Marine Band . The musicians included the young Venerando Pulizzi , who became the first Italian director of the band and served in this capacity from 1816 to 1827. Francesco Maria Scala , an Italian-born naturalized American citizen, was one of the most important and influential directors of the U.S. Marine Band, from 1855 to 1871, and

1300-414: A low-threshold-voltage, self-aligned gate MOS process technology. Faggin's first task was to develop the precision etching solution for the amorphous silicon gate, and then he created the process architecture and the detailed processing steps to fabricate MOS ICs with silicon gate . He also invented the ‘buried contacts,’ a method to make direct contact between amorphous silicon and silicon junctions, without

1430-440: A method in which the aluminum gate electrode itself was used as a mask to define the source and drain regions of the transistor. However, since aluminum could not withstand the high temperature required for the conventional doping of the source and drain junctions, Bower proposed to use ion implantation, a new doping technique still in development at Hughes Aircraft, his employer, and not yet available at other labs. While Bower’s idea

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1560-662: A missionary and expert in Indian languages, ministered to European colonists and Native Americans in Wisconsin and Iowa for 34 years and, after his death, was declared Venerable by the Catholic Church. Father Charles Constantine Pise , a Jesuit, served as Chaplain of the Senate from 1832 to 1833, the only Catholic priest ever chosen to serve in this capacity. In 1833, Lorenzo Da Ponte , formerly Mozart's librettist and

1690-754: A naturalized U.S. citizen, founded the first opera house in the United States, the Italian Opera House in New York City, which was the predecessor of the New York Academy of Music and of the New York Metropolitan Opera . Missionaries of the Jesuit and Franciscan orders were active in many parts of America. Italian Jesuits founded numerous missions, schools, and two colleges in the west. Giovanni Nobili founded

1820-474: A small stream of new arrivals from Italy. Some brought skills in agriculture and the making of glass, silk and wine, while others brought skills as musicians. In 1773–1785, Filippo Mazzei , a physician, philosopher, diplomat, promoter of liberty, and author, was a close friend and confidant of Thomas Jefferson . He published a pamphlet containing the phrase, "All men are by nature equally free and independent," which Jefferson incorporated essentially intact into

1950-435: A stencil-like " mask ". Depending on the process, the photoresist that was exposed to light either hardens or softens, and in either case, the softer parts are then washed away. The result is a microscopic pattern on the surface of the wafer where a portion of the top layer is exposed while the rest is protected under the remaining photoresist. The wafer is then exposed to a variety of processes that add or remove materials from

2080-415: A theory of consciousness according to which consciousness is a purely quantum phenomenon , unique to each of us. This theory is supported by two quantum physics theorems: the no-cloning theorem and Holevo's theorem . The first states that a pure quantum state is not reproducible; the second limits the amount of measurable information to one classical bit for each qubit that describes the state. Therefore it

2210-544: A threshold voltage for the parasitic MOS transistors (the MOS transistors created when aluminum over the field oxide would bridge two junctions). To increase the parasitic threshold voltage beyond the supply voltage, it was necessary to increase the N-type doping level in selected regions under the field oxide, and this was initially accomplished with the use of a so-called channel-stopper mask, and later with ion implantation. The SGT

2340-509: A voice communication, call record keeping, etc. The patent covering the CoSystem is highly cited in the personal communication field. In 1986 Faggin co-founded and was CEO of Synaptics until 1999, becoming chairman from 1999 to 2009. Synaptics was initially dedicated to R&D in artificial neural networks for pattern-recognition applications using analog VLSI. Synaptics introduced the I1000,

2470-658: Is based on the theoretical studies of Professor Giacomo D'Ariano 's studies, who derived quantum theory from informational principles [9] , and on the experiential, philosophical and scientific studies of Federico Faggin on the nature of consciousness. Source for the above-mentioned awards: Italian-American 5,953,262 (1.8%) Italian alone 2021 estimates, self-reported 17,285,619 (2015) 17,566,693 (2010) 17,829,184 (2006) 16,688,000 (2000) 14,664,550 (1990) 12,183,692 (1980) Italian Americans ( Italian : italoamericani ) are Americans who have full or partial Italian ancestry. According to

2600-572: Is credited with inventing the earliest version of an ice cream cone in 1898. Another Italian immigrant, Giuseppe Bellanca , brought with him in 1912 an advanced aircraft design, which he began producing. One of Bellanca's planes, piloted by Cesare Sabelli and George Pond, made one of the first nonstop trans-Atlantic flights in 1934. Several families, including the Grucci , Zambelli , and Vitale families, brought with them expertise in fireworks displays, and their preeminence in this field has continued to

2730-816: Is currently unknown; however, a 1671 Dutch record indicates that in 1656 alone the Duchy of Savoy near Turin , Italy, had exiled 300 Waldensians because of their Protestant faith. Enrico Tonti (Henri de Tonti), together with the French explorer René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle , explored the Great Lakes region. De Tonti founded the first European settlement in Illinois in 1679 and in Arkansas in 1683, known as Poste de Arkansea , making him "The Father of Arkansas." With LaSalle, he co-founded New Orleans and

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2860-851: Is displayed in the United States Capitol Visitor Center . The Taliaferro family (originally Tagliaferro ), believed to have roots in Venice , was one of the First Families to settle Virginia . The Wythe House , a historic Georgian home built in Williamsburg, Virginia , in 1754, was designed by architect Richard Taliaferro for his son-in-law, American Founding Father George Wythe , who married Richard's daughter Elizabeth Taliaferro. The elder Taliaferro designed much of Colonial Williamsburg , including

2990-470: Is one of the key innovations that led to the large increase in computing power in the 1970s. Self-aligned gates are still used in most modern integrated circuit processes . Integrated circuits (ICs, or "chips") are produced in a multi-step process that builds up multiple layers on the surface of a disk of silicon known as a " wafer ". Each layer is patterned by coating the wafer in photoresist and then exposing it to ultraviolet light being shone through

3120-419: Is possible to postulate that a quantum system that is in a pure state is aware of its state, since conscious experiences ( qualia ) have all the essential properties of pure states, i.e., it is private knowledge only minimally knowable from the outside. However, the mathematical representation of the experience (the pure state) does not describe the experience, which remains private and knowable only from within by

3250-648: The Bank of America . His bank also provided financing to the film industry developing on the West Coast at the time, including the financing for Walt Disney's Snow White , the first full-length animated motion picture to be made in the United States. Other companies founded by Italian Americans—such as Ghirardelli Chocolate Company , Progresso , Planters Peanuts , Contadina , Chef Boyardee , Italian Swiss Colony wines, and Jacuzzi —became nationally known brand names in time. An Italian immigrant, Italo Marciony (Marcioni),

3380-562: The Battle of the Little Bighorn . An immigrant, Antonio Meucci , brought with him a concept for the telephone. He is credited by many researchers with being the first to demonstrate the principle of the telephone in a patent caveat he submitted to the U.S. Patent Office in 1871; however, considerable controversy existed relative to the priority of invention, with Alexander Graham Bell also being accorded this distinction. (In 2002,

3510-474: The Datapoint 2200 intelligent terminal, in which it was implemented in discrete IC logic. The Intel 4040 microprocessor (1974) was a much improved, machine-code-compatible version of the 4004 CPU allowing it to interface directly with standard memories and I/O devices. Federico Faggin created the architecture of the 4040 and supervised Tom Innes who did the design work. The 8080 microprocessor (1974)

3640-835: The Declaration of Independence . Italian Americans served in the American Revolutionary War both as soldiers and officers. Francesco Vigo aided the colonial forces of George Rogers Clark by serving as one of the foremost financiers of the Revolution in the frontier Northwest. Later, he was a co-founder of Vincennes University in Indiana . After American independence, numerous political refugees arrived, most notably Giuseppe Avezzana , Alessandro Gavazzi , Silvio Pellico , Federico Confalonieri , and Eleuterio Felice Foresti . Giuseppe Garibaldi resided in

3770-837: The Governor's Palace , the Capitol of the Colony of Virginia , and the President's House at the College of William & Mary . Francesco Maria de Reggio, an Italian nobleman of the House of Este who served under the French as François Marie, Chevalier de Reggio , came to Louisiana in 1747 where King Louis XV appointed him Captain General of French Louisiana , until 1763. Scion of

3900-418: The Intel 4004 , was developed by Faggin using his silicon-gate MOS IC technology. Marcian Hoff , Stan Mazor and Masatoshi Shima contributed to the architecture. The self-aligned gate design was patented in 1969 by the team of Kerwin, Klein , and Sarace. It was independently invented by Robert W. Bower (U.S. 3,472,712, issued October 14, 1969, filed October 27, 1966). The Bell Labs Kerwin et al. patent

4030-495: The MSX , ColecoVision , Master System and Game Boy . The Z80 ceased production in 2024. The Zilog Z8 micro controller (1978) was one of the first single-chip microcontrollers in the market. It integrated an 8-bit CPU, RAM, ROM and I/O facilities, sufficient for many control applications. Faggin conceived the Z8 in 1974, soon after he founded Zilog, but then decided to give priority to

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4160-649: The U.S. House of Representatives passed a resolution on Meucci (H.R. 269) declaring that "his work in the invention of the telephone should be acknowledged.") During this period, Italian Americans established a number of institutions of higher learning. Las Vegas College (now Regis University ) was established by a group of exiled Italian Jesuits in 1877 in Las Vegas , New Mexico. The Jesuit Giuseppe Cataldo , founded Gonzaga College (now Gonzaga University ) in Spokane , Washington in 1887. In 1886, Rabbi Sabato Morais ,

4290-440: The self-aligned MOS ( metal–oxide–semiconductor ) silicon-gate technology (SGT), which made possible MOS semiconductor memory chips , CCD image sensors , and the microprocessor. After the 4004, he led development of the Intel 8008 and 8080 , using his SGT methodology for random logic chip design, which was essential to the creation of early Intel microprocessors . He was co-founder (with Ralph Ungermann ) and CEO of Zilog ,

4420-407: The semiconductor industry almost universally adopted self-aligned gates made with polycrystalline silicon (poly-silicon), the so-called silicon-gate technology (SGT) or "self-aligned silicon-gate" technology, which had many additional benefits over the reduction of parasitic capacitances. One important feature of SGT was that the transistor was entirely buried under top quality thermal oxide (one of

4550-400: The "channel" region separating the source and drain to become the same type as the source-drain, thus turning the transistor "on". Because no current flows from the gate to the drain, the switching energy of a FET is very small compared to earlier bipolar junction transistor types where the gate (or base as it was known) was in-line with the current. In early MOSFET fabrication methodologies,

4680-490: The 17th century. They were of French and northern Italian heritage (specifically Piedmontese ), The first Waldensians began arriving around 1640, with the majority coming between 1654 and 1663. They spread out across what was then called New Netherland and what would become New York , New Jersey , and the Lower Delaware River regions. The total American Waldensian population that immigrated to New Netherland

4810-509: The 1920s 455,315 immigrants arrived. They came under the terms of the new quota-based immigration restrictions created by the Immigration Act of 1924 . Italian-Americans had a significant influence on American society and culture, making contributions to visual arts, literature, cuisine, politics, sports, and music. Italians in the United States before 1880 included a number of explorers, starting with Christopher Columbus , and

4940-508: The 1920s. Many sought housing in the older sections of the large Northeastern cities—districts that became known as " Little Italys ." Such housing was frequently in overcrowded, substandard tenements, which were often dimly lit and had poor heating and ventilation. Tuberculosis and other communicable diseases were a constant health threat for the immigrant families that were compelled by economic circumstances to live in these dwellings. Other immigrant families lived in single-family abodes, which

5070-443: The 3708 was designed to have approximately the same area as the 3705 to facilitate using the same production tooling as the 3705, it could have been made considerably smaller. Nonetheless, it had superior performance compared with the 3705: it was 5 times faster, it had about 100 times less leakage current, and the on resistance of the large transistors making up the analog switches was 3 times lower. The silicon-gate technology (SGT)

5200-457: The 4004, was built with p-channel SGT. The 8008 development was originally assigned to Hal Feeney in March 1970 but was suspended until the 4004 was completed. It was resumed in January 1971 under Faggin's direction utilizing the basic circuits and methodology he had developed for the 4004, with Hal Feeney doing the chip design. The CPU architecture of the 8008 was originally created by CTC Inc. for

5330-416: The 8008. The high performance and low cost of the 8080 let developers use microprocessors for many new applications, including the forerunners of the personal computer. When Faggin left Intel at the end of 1974 to found Zilog with Ralph Ungermann, he was R&D department manager responsible for all MOS products, except for dynamic memories. The Zilog Z80 was the first microprocessor created by Zilog ,

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5460-571: The 8080, yet it retained software compatibility with it. Much faster and with more than twice as many registers and instructions of the 8080, it was part of a family of components that included several intelligent peripherals (the Z80-PIO, a programmable parallel input-output controller; the Z80-CTC, a programmable counter-timer; the Z80-SIO, programmable serial communications interface controller, and

5590-713: The Americas. Another Italian, John Cabot ( Italian : Giovanni Caboto [dʒoˈvanni kaˈbɔːto] ), together with his son Sebastian , explored the eastern seaboard of North America for Henry VII in the early 16th century. In 1524, the Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano ( Italian: [dʒoˈvanni da (v)verratˈtsaːno] ) was the first European to explore the Atlantic coast of North America between Florida and New Brunswick in 1524. The Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci ( Italian: [ameˈriːɡo veˈsputtʃi] ) first demonstrated in about 1501 that

5720-603: The Capitol. The first Columbus Day celebration was organized by Italian Americans in New York City on October 12, 1866. Giovanni Martino or Giovanni Martini, also known as John Martin, was a soldier and trumpeter who served both in Italy with Giuseppe Garibaldi and in the United States Army , famously in the 7th Cavalry Regiment under George Armstrong Custer . He was the only survivor from Custer's company at

5850-797: The Federico and Elvia Faggin Foundation to support the scientific study of consciousness at US universities and research institutes. In 2015, the Faggin Foundation helped to establish a $ 1 million endowment for the Faggin Family Presidential Chair in the Physics of Information at UC Santa Cruz to promote the study of "fundamental questions at the interface of physics and related fields including mathematics, complex systems, biophysics, and cognitive science, with

5980-617: The International Electron Device Meeting, Washington, D.C., 1966. Bower's work described the self-aligned-gate MOSFET, made with both aluminum and polysilicon gates. It used both ion implantation and diffusion to form the source and drain using the gate electrode as the mask to define the source and drain regions. The Bell Labs team attended this meeting of the IEDM in 1966, and they discussed this work with Bower after his presentation in 1966. Bower had first made

6110-581: The Italian American Studies Association, the current population is about 18 million, an increase from 16 million in 2010, corresponding to about 5.4% of the total population of the United States . The largest concentrations of Italian Americans are in the urban Northeast and industrial Midwestern metropolitan areas , with significant communities also residing in many other major U.S. metropolitan areas. Between 1820 and 2004, approximately 5.5 million Italians migrated to

6240-509: The Italians who entered the United States between 1899 and 1924 permanently returned home. Immigrants without industrial skills found employment in low-wage manual labor jobs. Instead of finding jobs on their own, most used the padrone system whereby Italian middlemen ( padroni ) found jobs for groups of men and controlled their wages, transportation, and living conditions for a fee. According to historian Alfred T. Banfield: In terms of

6370-483: The New World was not Asia as initially conjectured but a different continent ( America is named after him). A number of Italian navigators and explorers in the employ of Spain and France were involved in exploring and mapping their territories and in establishing settlements, but their work did not lead to the permanent presence of Italians in America. In 1539, Marco da Nizza explored the territory that later became

6500-611: The New York City area. He was again a member of the State Assembly (New York Co., 16th D.) in 1877 , 1881 , and 1883 . Between 5,000 and 10,000 Italian Americans fought in the American Civil War . The great majority of Italian Americans, for both demographic and ideological reasons, served in the Union Army (including generals Edward Ferrero and Francis B. Spinola ). Some Americans of Italian descent from

6630-717: The Santa Clara College (now Santa Clara University ) in 1851. The St. Ignatius Academy (now University of San Francisco ) was established by Anthony Maraschi in 1855. The Italian Jesuits also laid the foundation for the winemaking industry that would later flourish in California . In the east, the Italian Franciscans founded hospitals, orphanages, schools, and St. Bonaventure College (now St. Bonaventure University ), established by Pamfilo da Magliano in 1858. In 1837, John Phinizy (Finizzi) became

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6760-671: The U.S. from Tuscany . Beginning in 1863, Italian immigrants were one of the principal groups of unskilled laborers, along with the Irish, that built the Transcontinental Railroad west from Omaha , Nebraska. In 1866, Constantino Brumidi completed the frescoed interior of the United States Capitol dome in Washington, D.C. , and spent the rest of his life executing still other artworks to beautify

6890-727: The United States (1890–1900) posed a change in the labor market, prompting Fr. Michael J. Henry to write a letter in October 1900 to the Bishop John J. Clancy of Sligo , Ireland , warning The Brooklyn Eagle , in a 1900 article, addressed the same reality: In spite of the economic hardship of the immigrants, civil and social life flourished in the Italian American neighborhoods of the large northeastern cities. Italian theater, band concerts, choral recitals, puppet shows, mutual aid societies, and social clubs were available to

7020-519: The United States during the Italian diaspora , in several distinct waves, with the greatest number arriving in the 20th century from Southern Italy . Initially, most single men, so-called birds of passage, sent remittance back to their families in Italy and then returned to Italy. Immigration began to increase during the 1880s, when more than twice as many Italians immigrated than had in the five previous decades combined. Continuing from 1880 to 1914,

7150-513: The United States in 1850–51. At the invitation of Thomas Jefferson, Carlo Bellini became the first professor of modern languages at the College of William & Mary , in the years 1779–1803. In 1801, Philip Trajetta (Filippo Traetta) established the nation's first conservatory of music in Boston, where, in the first half of the century, organist Charles Nolcini and conductor Louis Ostinelli were also active. In 1805, Thomas Jefferson recruited

7280-473: The University of Padua and taught the electronics laboratory course for 3rd year physics students in the academic year 1965–1966. In 1967, he joined SGS-Fairchild , in Italy, where he developed its first MOS metal-gate process technology and designed its first two commercial MOS integrated circuits. SGS sent him to California in 1968. When Fairchild sold SGS-Fairchild, Faggin accepted an offer to complete

7410-586: The West. In 1789–91, Alessandro Malaspina mapped much of the west coast of the Americas , from Cape Horn to the Gulf of Alaska . In 1822–23, the headwater region of the Mississippi was explored by Giacomo Beltrami in the territory that was later to become Minnesota , which named a county in his honor. Joseph Rosati was named the first Catholic bishop of St. Louis in 1824. In 1830–64, Samuel Mazzuchelli ,

7540-475: The Z80-DMA, programmable direct memory access controller). This chip family allowed the design of powerful and low-cost microcomputers with performance comparable to minicomputers. The Z80-CPU had a substantially better bus structure and interrupt structure than the 8080 and could interface directly with dynamic RAM, since it included an internal memory-refresh controller. The Z80 was used in many of early personal computers , as well as in video game systems such as

7670-476: The Z80. The Z8 was designed in 1976–78 and ended production in 2024. The Communication CoSystem (1984). The Cosystem was conceived by Faggin and designed and produced by Cygnet Technologies, Inc., the second startup company of Faggin. Attached to a personal computer and to a standard phone line, the CoSystem could automatically handle all the personal voice and data communications of the user, including electronic mail, database access, computer screen transfers during

7800-413: The architectural proposal and the instruction set with assistance from Stan Mazor and working in conjunction with Busicom's Masatoshi Shima . However, none of them was a chip designer and none was familiar with the new Silicon Gate Technology (SGT). The silicon design was the essential missing ingredient to making a microprocessor since everything else was already known. Federico Faggin led the project in

7930-454: The basic patent US 3,475,234. Actually the self-aligned gate MOSFET was invented by Robert W. Bower U.S. 3,472,712, issued October 14, 1969, Filed October 27, 1966. The Bell Labs Kerwin et al patent 3,475,234 was not filed until March 27, 1967 several months after the R. W. Bower and H. D. Dill Published and presented the first publication of this work entitled INSULATED GATE FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS FABRICATED USING THE GATE AS SOURCE-DRAIN MASK at

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8060-633: The best insulators known), making it possible to create new device types, not feasible with conventional technology or with self-aligned gates made with other materials. Particularly important are charge-coupled devices (CCD), used for image sensors, and non-volatile memory devices using floating silicon-gate structures. These devices dramatically enlarged the range of functionality that could be achieved with solid state electronics. Certain innovations were required in order to make self-aligned gates: Prior to these innovations, self-aligned gates had been demonstrated on metal-gate devices, but their real impact

8190-411: The best sensors of the competition, while using approximately half the chip size of competing devices. Faggin also oversaw the successful acquisition of Foveon by the Japanese Sigma Corporation in November 2008. Founded in 2011 the "Federico and Elvia Faggin Foundation" supports the scientific study of consciousness at US universities and research institutes. The purpose of the Foundation is to advance

8320-402: The country as a condition for payment of their passage. It was not uncommon, especially in the South, for the immigrants to be subjected to economic exploitation, hostility, and sometimes even violence. The Italian laborers who went to these areas were in many cases later joined by wives and children, which resulted in the establishment of permanent Italian American settlements in diverse parts of

8450-413: The country. A number of towns, such as Roseto, Pennsylvania , Tontitown, Arkansas , and Valdese, North Carolina , were founded by Italian immigrants during this era. A number of major business ventures were founded by Italian Americans. Amadeo Giannini originated the concept of branch banking to serve the Italian American community in San Francisco . He founded the Bank of Italy, which later became

8580-433: The country. Work on Union Station began in 1905 and was completed in 1908. The six statues that decorate the station's facade were carved by Andrew Bernasconi between 1909 and 1911. Two Italian American master stone carvers, Roger Morigi and Vincent Palumbo, spent decades creating the sculptural works that embellish Washington National Cathedral . Self-aligned gate The use of self-aligned gates in MOS transistors

8710-401: The de Reggios, a Louisiana Creole first family of St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana , Francesco Maria's granddaughter Hélène Judith de Reggio would give birth to famed Confederate General P. G. T. Beauregard . A colonial merchant, Francis Ferrari of Genoa, was naturalized as a citizen of Rhode Island in 1752. He died in 1753, and in his will speaks of Genoa , his ownership of three ships,

8840-400: The development of the silicon-gate technology with Fairchild. The silicon-gate technology (SGT) is one of the most influential technologies to have fueled the progress of microelectronics since the MOSFET . Without the SGT, the first microprocessor could not have been made during 1970–1971. In February 1968, Federico Faggin joined Fairchild Semiconductor in Palo Alto where he was

8970-426: The disbanded Army of the Two Sicilies , which was defeated by Giuseppe Garibaldi after the Expedition of the Thousand , fought in the Confederate Army. They included Confederate generals William B. Taliaferro (of English-American and Anglo-Italian descent) and P. G. T. Beauregard . Six Italian Americans received the Medal of Honor during the war, including Colonel Luigi Palma di Cesnola , who later became

9100-405: The dopant. In a typical IC this process is used to produce the individual transistors that make up the key elements of an IC. In the MOSFET , the three parts of a transistor are the source, the drain, and the gate (see diagram). The "field effect" in the name refers to changes to the conductivity that occur when a voltage is applied to the gate. The key point is that this electric field can cause

9230-464: The equivalent Fairchild 3705 that used metal-gate technology. The 3708 was 5 times faster, had 100 times less junction leakage and was much more reliable than the 3705, demonstrating the superiority of SGT over metal-gate MOS. See also: Faggin, F., Klein T. (1969). "A Faster Generation of MOS Devices With Low Threshold Is Riding The Crest of the New Wave, Silicon-Gate IC's". Electronics, 29 Sep. 1969. Federico Faggin joined Intel from Fairchild in 1970 as

9360-451: The family (constituting the MCS-4 family) were: the 4001, a 2k-bit metal-mask programmable ROM with programmable input-output lines; the 4002, a 320-bit dynamic RAM with a 4-bit output port; and the 4003, a 10-bit serial input and serial/parallel output, static shift register to use as an I/O expander. Faggin promoted the idea of broadly marketing the MCS-4 to customers other than Busicom by showing to Intel management how customers could design

9490-558: The first company entirely dedicated to microprocessors. It was started by Federico Faggin and Ralph Ungermann in November 1974. Faggin was Zilog's president and CEO until the end of 1980 and he conceived and designed the Z80 CPU and its family of programmable peripheral components. He also co-designed the CPU whose project leader was Masatoshi Shima . The Z80-CPU was a major improvement over

9620-455: The first company solely dedicated to microprocessors, and led the development of the Zilog Z80 and Z8 processors. He was later the co-founder and CEO of Cygnet Technologies, and then Synaptics . In 2010, he received the 2009 National Medal of Technology and Innovation , the highest honor the United States confers for achievements related to technological progress. In 2011, Faggin founded

9750-713: The first director of the Metropolitan Museum of Arts in New York (1879–1904). The Garibaldi Guard recruited volunteers for the Union Army from Italy and other European countries to form the 39th New York Infantry . At the outbreak of the American Civil War, Giuseppe Garibaldi was a very popular figure. The 39th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment , with 350 Italian members, was nicknamed Garibaldi Guard in his honor. The unit wore red shirts and bersaglieri plumes . They carried with them both

9880-432: The first time, the depletion load, combining the silicon gate technology with ionic implantation. The design was done toward the end of 1973 by Federico Faggin and Dick Pashley. The 2102A was 5 times faster than the 2102, opening a new direction for Intel. Faggin's silicon design methodology was used for implementing all Intel's early microprocessors. The Intel 8008 was the world's first single-chip 8-bit CPU and, like

10010-622: The garment industry or in their homes. Many established small businesses in the Little Italys to satisfy the day-to-day needs of fellow immigrants. A New York Times article from 1895 provides a glimpse into the status of Italian immigration at the turn of the century: The New York Times in May 1896 sent its reporters to characterize the Little Italy/Mulberry neighborhood: The masses of Italian immigrants that entered

10140-403: The gate actually overlaps the underlying source and drain, the gate material has to be wider than the gap between the n sections, typically as much as three times. This wastes space and creates extra capacitance between the gate and the source-drain. This parasitic capacitance requires that the entire chip be driven at high power levels to ensure clean switching which is inefficient. Additionally,

10270-407: The gate itself. As a result, the source and drain "self-align" to the gate. Since they are always perfectly positioned, there is no need to make the gate wider than desired, and the parasitic capacitance is greatly reduced. Alignment time and chip-to-chip variability are likewise reduced. After early experimentation with different gate materials using aluminum , molybdenum and amorphous silicon ,

10400-423: The gate mask with respect to the source and drain mask, it was necessary to have a fairly large overlap area between the gate region and the source and drain regions, to ensure that the thin-oxide region would bridge the source and drain, even under worst-case misalignment. This requirement resulted in gate-to-source and gate-to-drain parasitic capacitances that were large and variable from wafer to wafer, depending on

10530-434: The gate was made of aluminum which melts at 660 °C, so it had to be deposited as one of the last steps in the process after all the doping stages had been completed at around 1000 °C. The wafer as a whole is first chosen to have a particular electrical quality as biased either positive, or "p", or negative, "n". In the illustration the base material is "p" (called n-channel or nMOS). A mask is then used to produce areas where

10660-405: The general market before the end of 1968. During the period, July to October 1968, Faggin added two additional critical steps to the process: With silicon gate, the long-term reliability of MOS transistors soon reached the level of bipolar ICs removing one major obstacle to the wide adoption of MOS technology. By the end of 1968 the silicon-gate technology had achieved impressive results. Although

10790-445: The general product idea and led a group of engineers who further refined the idea through many brainstorming sessions. Faggin is a co-inventor of ten patents assigned to Synaptics. He is chairman emeritus of Synaptics. During his tenure as president and CEO of Foveon , from 2003 to 2008, Faggin revitalized the company and provided a new technological and business direction resulting in image sensors superior in all critical parameters to

10920-462: The greatest surge of immigration brought more than 4 million Italians to the United States. The largest number of this wave came from Southern Italy, which at that time was largely agricultural and where much of the populace had been impoverished by centuries of foreign rule and heavy tax burdens. This period of large-scale immigration ended abruptly with the onset of World War I in August 1914. In

11050-555: The immigrants a sense of unity and common identity. The destinations of many of the Italian immigrants were not only the large cities of the East Coast , but also more remote regions of the country, such as Florida and California. They were drawn there by opportunities in agriculture, fishing, mining, railroad construction, lumbering, and other activities under way at the time. Often the immigrants contracted to work in these areas of

11180-508: The immigrants. An important event, the festa , became for many an important connection to the traditions of their ancestral villages in Italy. The festa involved an elaborate procession through the streets in honor of a patron saint or the Virgin Mary in which a large statue was carried by a team of men, with musicians marching behind. Followed by food, fireworks, and general merriment, the festa became an important occasion that helped give

11310-475: The incumbent aluminum-gate MOS technology, and was adopted worldwide within 10 years, eventually making obsolete the original integrated circuits built with bipolar transistors . At Fairchild, Faggin designed the first commercial integrated circuit using silicon-gate technology with self-aligned MOSFET transistors: the Fairchild 3708. The 3708 was an 8-bit analog multiplexer with decoding logic, replacing

11440-513: The large exodus included political and social unrest, the weak agricultural economy of the South modeled on the outdated latifundist system dating back to the feudal period, a high tax burden, soil exhaustion and erosion, and military conscription lasting seven years. The poor economic situation in the 19th century became untenable for many sharecroppers, tenant farmers, and small business and land owners. Multitudes chose to emigrate rather than face

11570-429: The mayor of Augusta , Georgia. Samuel Wilds Trotti of South Carolina was the first Italian American to serve in the U.S. Congress (a partial term, from December 17, 1842, to March 3, 1843). In 1849, Francesco de Casale began publishing the Italian American newspaper L'Eco d'Italia in New York, the first of many to eventually follow. In 1848, Francis Ramacciotti , piano string inventor and manufacturer, immigrated to

11700-513: The mayor of Texarkana , Texas in 1880. Francis B. Spinola , the first Italian American to be elected to the United States House of Representatives , served as a representative from New York from 1887 to 1891. He also served as a general in the Union Army during the American Civil War . Following the war, Spinola was a banker and insurance agent and became an influential figure among the rapidly growing Italian immigrant community in

11830-418: The misalignment of the gate oxide mask with respect with the source and drain mask. The result was an undesirable spread in the speed of the integrated circuits produced, and a much lower speed than theoretically possible if the parasitic capacitances could be reduced to a minimum. The overlap capacitance with the most adverse consequences on performance was the gate-to-drain parasitic capacitance, Cgd, which, by

11960-421: The multi-step fabrication process . In the self-aligned process, the key gate-insulating layer is formed near the beginning of the process. Then the gate is deposited and patterned on top. Then the source-drains are doped (for poly-silicon the gates are doped simultaneously). The source-drain pattern thus represents only the outside edges of the source and drain, the inside edge of those sections being masked by

12090-404: The negative "n" sections of the transistors will be placed. The wafer is then heated to around 1000 °C, and exposed to a doping gas that diffuses into the surface of the wafer to produce the "n" sections. A thin layer of insulator material (silicon dioxide) is then grown on top of the wafer. Finally, the gate is patterned on top of the insulating layer in a new photo-lithographic operation. To ensure

12220-504: The outbreak of World War I in 1914. The Italian male immigrants in the Little Italys were most often employed in manual labor and were heavily involved in public works , such as the construction of roads, railroad tracks, sewers, subways, bridges, and the first skyscrapers in the northeastern cities. As early as 1890, it was estimated that around 90 percent of New York City's and 99 percent of Chicago's public works employees were Italians. The women most frequently worked as seamstresses in

12350-399: The portions of the wafer that are unprotected by the photoresist. In one common process, the wafer is heated to around 1000 °C and then exposed to a gas containing a doping material (commonly boron or phosphorus) that changes the electrical properties of the silicon. This allows the silicon to become an electron donor, electron receptor, or near-insulator depending on the type and/or amount of

12480-476: The present day. Following in the footsteps of Constantino Brumidi , others were commissioned to help create Washington's impressive monuments. An Italian immigrant, Attilio Piccirilli , and his five brothers carved the Lincoln Memorial , which they began in 1911 and completed in 1922. Italian construction workers helped build Washington's Union Station, considered one of the most beautiful stations in

12610-514: The project leader and designer of the MCS-4 family of microprocessors, which included the 4004, the world's first single-chip microprocessor. Fairchild was not taking advantage of the SGT and Faggin wanted to use his new technology to design advanced chips. The 4004 (1971) was made possible by the advanced capabilities of the silicon gate technology (SGT) being enhanced through the novel random logic chip design methodology that Faggin created at Intel. It

12740-498: The project leader of the MOS silicon-gate technology, a MOSFET with a silicon self-aligned gate , and the inventor of its unique process architecture. The SGT became the basis of all modern NMOS and CMOS integrated circuits . It made possible the creation of MOS semiconductor memory chips during 1969–1970, the first microprocessor during 1970–1971, and the first CCD and EPROM (electrically programmable read-only memory ) with floating silicon gates (1970–1971). The SGT replaced

12870-469: The prospect of a deepening poverty. A large number of these were attracted to the United States, which at the time was actively recruiting workers from Italy and elsewhere to fill the labor shortage that existed in the years following the Civil War. Often the father and older sons would go first, leaving the mother and the rest of the family behind until the male members could afford their passage. By far

13000-534: The push-pull model of immigration, America provided the pull factor by the prospect of jobs that unskilled and uneducated Italian peasant farmers could do. Peasant farmers accustomed to hard work in the Mezzogiorno, for example, took jobs building railroads and constructing buildings, while others took factory jobs that required little or no skill. The push factor came primarily from the harsh economic conditions in southern Italy. Major factors that contributed to

13130-422: The same N-type silicon. This meant that the threshold voltage of MOS transistors with silicon gate could be 1.1 volt lower than the threshold voltage of MOS transistors with aluminum gate fabricated on the same starting material. Therefore, one could use starting material with [111] silicon orientation and simultaneously achieve both an adequate parasitic threshold voltage and low threshold voltage transistors without

13260-474: The same functionality of the Fairchild 3705, a metal-gate production IC that Fairchild Semiconductor had difficulty making on account of its rather stringent specifications. The availability of the 3708 in July 1968 provided also a platform to further improve the process during the following months, leading to the shipment of the first 3708 samples to customers in October 1968, and making it commercially available to

13390-509: The scene of one of the largest voluntary emigrations in recorded world history. During this period of mass migration, 4 million Italians arrived in the United States, 3 million of them between 1900 and 1914. They came for the most part from southern Italy (the regions of Abruzzo , Campania , Apulia , Basilicata , and Calabria ) and from the island of Sicily . Most planned to stay a few years, then take their earnings and return home. According to historian Thomas J. Archdeacon , 46 percent of

13520-454: The self-aligned gate using aluminum as the gate and, before presentation in 1966, made the device using polysilicon as the gate. The self-aligned gate typically involves ion implantation , another semiconductor process innovation of the 1960s. The histories of ion implantation and self-aligned gates are highly interrelated, as recounted in an in-depth history by R.B. Fair. The first commercial product using self-aligned silicon-gate technology

13650-437: The speed 5 times, while reducing the chip area by half compared with metal-gate MOS. The design methodology created by Faggin was utilized for the implementation of all Intel's early microprocessors and later also for Zilog's Z80 . The Intel 4004 – a 4-bit CPU (central processing unit) on a single chip – was a member of a family of 4 custom chips designed for Busicom , a Japanese calculator manufacturer. The other members of

13780-489: The states of Arizona and New Mexico . The first Italian to be registered as residing in the area corresponding to the current United States was Pietro Cesare Alberti , commonly regarded as the first Italian American. Alberti was a Venetian seaman who, in 1635, settled in the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam , which would eventually become New York City . A small wave of Protestants, known as Waldensians , immigrated during

13910-414: The strongest "pull" factor was money. Migrants expected to make large sums in a few years of work, enabling them to live much better when they returned home, especially by buying a farm. Real life was never so golden: the Italians earned well below average rates. Their weekly earnings in manufacturing and mining in 1909 came to $ 9.61, compared to $ 13.63 for German immigrants and $ 11.06 for Poles. The result

14040-435: The system that is in that state. No classical machine can ever be conscious given that classical information is reproducible (program and data can be copied perfectly), while the quantum state is private. Consciousness is therefore not linked to the functioning of the body and can continue to exist even after the death of the body. The body behaves like a drone controlled "top down" by consciousness. The new D'Ariano-Faggin theory

14170-451: The understanding of consciousness through theoretical and experimental research. Faggin's interest in consciousness has his roots in the study of artificial neural networks at Synaptics, a company he started in 1986, that prompted his inquiry into whether or not it is possible to build a conscious computer. In the book Italian : "Irriducibile. La coscienza, la vita, i computer e la nostra natura" (Mondadori, 2022) Federico Faggin proposed

14300-566: The unifying theme of information in physics." Born in Vicenza, Italy, Federico grew up in an intellectual environment. His father, Giuseppe Faggin, was a scholar who wrote many academic books and translated, with commentaries, the Enneads of Plotinus from the original Greek into modern Italian. Federico had a strong interest in technology from an early age. He attended a technical high school in Vicenza, I.T.I.S. Alessandro Rossi, and later earned

14430-415: The use of a channel-stopper mask or ion implantation under the field oxide. With P-type doped silicon gate it would therefore be possible not only to create self-aligned gate transistors but also a low threshold voltage process by using the same silicon orientation of the high threshold voltage process. In February 1968, Federico Faggin joined Les Vadasz 's group and was put in charge of the development of

14560-435: The use of metal, a technique that allowed a much higher circuit density, particularly for random logic circuits. After validating and characterizing the process using a test pattern he designed, Faggin made the first working MOS silicon-gate transistors and test structures by April 1968. He then designed the first integrated circuit using silicon gate, the Fairchild 3708, an 8-bit analog multiplexer with decoding logic, that had

14690-406: The variation in the misalignment of the gate to the underlying source-drain means that there is high chip-to-chip variability even when they are working properly. The self-aligned gate developed in several steps to its present form. Key to the advance was the discovery that heavily doped poly-silicon was conductive enough to replace aluminum. This meant the gate layer could be created at any stage in

14820-506: The well-known Miller effect, augmented the gate-to-source capacitance of the transistor by Cgd multiplied by the gain of the circuit to which that transistor was a part. The impact was a considerable reduction in the switching speed of transistors. In 1966, Robert W. Bower realized that if the gate electrode was defined first, it would be possible not only to minimize the parasitic capacitances between gate and source and drain, but it would also make them insensitive to misalignment. He proposed

14950-406: The world's first single-chip optical character recognizer in 1991. In 1994, Synaptics introduced the touchpad to replace the cumbersome trackball then in use in laptop computers. The touchpad was broadly adopted by the industry. Synaptics also introduced the early touchscreens that were eventually adopted for intelligent phones and tablets; applications that now dominate the market. Faggin came up with

15080-458: Was a sense of alienation from most of American culture and a lack of interest in learning English or otherwise assimilating. Not many women came, but those who did became devoted to traditional Italian religious customs. When the World War I broke out, European migrants could not go home. Wages shot up, and the Italians benefited greatly. Most decided to stay permanently, and they flourished in

15210-507: Was adopted by Intel upon its founding (July 1968), and within a few years became the core technology for the fabrication of MOS integrated circuits worldwide, lasting to this day. Intel was also the first company to develop non-volatile memory using floating silicon-gate transistors. The first memory chip to use silicon-gate technology was the Intel 1101 SRAM (static random-access memory ) chip, fabricated in 1968 and demonstrated in 1969. The first commercial single-chip microprocessor ,

15340-416: Was conceptually sound, in practice it did not work, because it was impossible to adequately passivate the transistors, and repair the radiation damage done to the silicon crystal structure by the ion implantation, since these two operations would have required temperatures in excess of the ones survivable by the aluminum gate. Thus his invention provided a proof of principle, but no commercial integrated circuit

15470-475: Was credited with the instrumental organization the band still maintains. Joseph Lucchesi, the third Italian leader of the U.S. Marine Band, served from 1844 to 1846. The first opera house in the country opened in 1833 in New York through the efforts of Lorenzo Da Ponte , Mozart's former librettist, who had immigrated to America and had become the first professor of Italian at Columbia College in 1825. During this period, Italian explorers continued to be active in

15600-459: Was ever produced with Bower’s method. A more refractory gate material was needed. In 1967, John C. Sarace and collaborators at Bell Labs replaced the aluminum gate with an electrode made of vacuum-evaporated amorphous silicon and succeeded in building working self-aligned gate MOS transistors. However, the process, as described, was only a proof of principle, suitable only for the fabrication of discrete transistors and not for integrated circuits; and

15730-593: Was governor of the Louisiana Territory for the next 20 years. His brother Alphonse de Tonty (Alfonso de Tonti), with French explorer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac , was the co-founder of Detroit in 1701, and was its acting colonial governor for 12 years. Spain and France were Catholic countries and sent many missionaries to convert the native American population. Included among these missionaries were numerous Italians. In 1519–25, Alessandro Geraldini

15860-561: Was more typical in areas outside of the enclaves of the large northeastern cities and other parts of the country as well. An estimated 49 percent of Italians who migrated to the Americas between 1905 (when return migration statistics began) and 1920 did not remain in the United States. These so-called birds of passage intended to stay in the United States for only a limited time, followed by a return to Italy with enough in savings to reestablish themselves there. While many did return to Italy, others chose to stay or were prevented from returning by

15990-503: Was not filed until March 27, 1967, several months after R. W. Bower and H. D. Dill had published and presented the first publication of this work at the International Electron Device Meeting, Washington, D.C. in 1966. In a legal action involving Bower, the Third Circuit Court of Appeals determined that Kerwin, Klein and Sarace were the inventors of the self-aligned silicon gate transistor. On that basis, they were awarded

16120-449: Was not pursued any further by its investigators In 1968, the MOS industry was prevalently using aluminum gate transistors with high threshold voltage (HVT) and desired to have a low threshold voltage (LVT) MOS process in order to increase the speed and reduce the power dissipation of MOS integrated circuits . Low threshold voltage transistors with aluminum gate demanded the use of [100] silicon orientation, which however produced too low

16250-417: Was on silicon-gate devices. The aluminum-gate MOS process technology started with the definition and doping of the source and drain regions of MOS transistors, followed by the gate mask that defined the thin-oxide region of the transistors. With additional processing steps, an aluminum gate would then be formed over the thin-oxide region completing the device fabrication. Due to the inevitable misalignment of

16380-475: Was the Fairchild 3708 8-bit analog multiplexor, in 1968, designed by Federico Faggin who pioneered several inventions in order to turn the aforementioned non working proofs of concept, into what the industry actually adopted thereafter. The importance of self-aligned gates comes in the process used to make them. The process of using the gate oxide as a mask for the source and drain diffusion both simplifies

16510-460: Was the first Catholic bishop in the Americas, at Santo Domingo . Father François-Joseph Bressani (Francesco Giuseppe Bressani) labored among the Algonquin and Huron peoples in the early 17th century. The southwest and California were explored and mapped by Italian Jesuit priest Eusebio Kino (Chino) in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. His statue , commissioned by the state of Arizona,

16640-402: Was the first high-performance 8-bit microprocessor in the market, using the faster n-channel SGT. The 8080 was conceived and architected by Faggin, and designed by Masatoshi Shima under Faggin's supervision. The 8080 was a major improvement over the 8008 architecture, yet it retained software compatibility with it. It was much faster and easier to interface to external memory and I/O devices than

16770-521: Was the first process technology used to fabricate commercial MOS integrated circuits that was later widely adopted by the entire industry in the 1960s. In late 1967, Tom Klein, working at the Fairchild Semiconductor R&;D Labs, and reporting to Les Vadasz , realized that the work function difference between heavily P-type doped silicon and N-type silicon was 1.1 volt lower than the work function difference between aluminum and

16900-464: Was this new methodology, together with his several design innovations, that allowed him to fit the microprocessor in one small chip. A single-chip microprocessor – an idea that was expected to occur many years in the future – became possible in 1971 by using SGT with two additional innovations: (1) "buried contacts" that doubled the circuit density, and (2) the use of bootstrap loads with 2-phase clocks—previously considered impossible with SGT— that improved

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