The First Korean Congress was convened by Philip Jaisohn in Philadelphia from April 12 to 14, 1919 in the Little Theater at 17th and Delancey Streets.
87-676: He convened the Congress as a reaction to the March 1st Movement , one of the earliest public displays of Korean resistance during the rule of Korea by Japan from 1910 into 1919. It was inspired by the " Fourteen Points " outlining the right of national " self-determination ", which was proclaimed by President Woodrow Wilson at the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919. Approximately 2,000,000 Koreans had participated in
174-626: A "Message to the Thinking People of Japan" asking to give freedom to Korea. "You will find that Korea will develop into a peaceful, democratic and industrial nation, which will be absolutely neutral in her foreign policies, will be a buffer between your country, China and Russia. The interest of your country requires a friendly buffer state in this region instead of a territory inhabited by sullen, resentful people in whose hearts hatred for you and your government will always exist as long as you try to govern them by force, cruelty and injustice." In
261-719: A discussion of Korea's sovereignty on the agenda, but did not succeed. Koreans in China also created a plan to secretly extract former Korean emperor Gojong from his house arrest in Korea, and eventually bring him to the conference. Before that could happen, on January 21, 1919, Gojong suddenly died. Japan reported that Gojong had died from natural causes, but he had reportedly been healthy just until his death. Koreans widely suspected that Japan had poisoned him [ ko ] ; these theories were in part motivated by knowledge of previous attempts on Gojong's life. Public outrage at
348-417: A larger role in regions with more developed transportation, and Cheondoists in regions with less developed transportation. According to one estimate, 17% of arrests made during the protests were of Christians, when they composed less than 1% of the population. 58.4% of arrests were of peasants, and 3.9% were of laborers. The Pyongan region played what historian Michael Shin argued was an outsized role in
435-566: A plan to protest in the last week of January; these efforts were merged into the Cheondoist ones. They secured alliances from major Christian and Buddhist groups, as well as from several student organizations. They gained the support of several former government officials from the Korean Empire , although they were rebuffed by Joseon -era politicians Park Yung-hyo and Han Kyu-sŏl . They decided to schedule their protest for March 1,
522-786: A post at Pomona College . In 1896, the family moved again, to Denver , but Clarence stayed behind to finish high school in Claremont before enrolling in the University of Denver in 1897. At this point, two of Clarence's older brothers, who were pastors in Wisconsin , convinced the family to move to Madison , so Clarence transferred to the University of Wisconsin–Madison . He majored in English literature and graduated in 1901. In 1901, he moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts , to pursue graduate work at Harvard , but grew frustrated and spent
609-732: A preface to their famous exchange in 1922, when Fosdick preached and distributed his famous sermon "Shall the Fundamentalists Win?" and Macartney responded with "Shall Unbelief Win?", thus setting off the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy in the PCUSA. Alarmed by Fosdick's apparent rejection of Christian orthodoxy, Macartney convinced the Presbytery of Philadelphia to ask the General Assembly of
696-444: A process of Japanization : forced cultural assimilation. Land was confiscated from Koreans and given to Japanese people, and economic and administrative systems were created that were systemically discriminatory. Resistance was violently suppressed, and freedom of speech and press were tightly controlled. Japanese colonial policies mandated that Koreans send increasingly significant portions of their economic output to Japan, for what
783-505: A reporter for the Chicago Daily News , reportedly witnessed 30 prisoners being kept in a single 10 ft × 6 ft (3.0 m × 1.8 m) room in a Pyongyang prison. Koreans were reportedly kept separate from Japanese prisoners, and given worse facilities. Another issue was heating; physician Jessie Hirst , head of Severance Hospital , reported that four nurses from his hospital were arrested for protesting in
870-645: A role in the planning of the protests. In mid-February, Robert Grierson allowed secret meetings about the protests to be conducted in his house in Sŏngjin . Protests in Sŏngjin went on to become the first in North Hamgyong Province . On February 28th, Canadian missionary Frank Schofield was asked to document the protests. Schofield's publicization of the protests proved so significant in influencing global public opinion, that he has since been described as
957-417: A second congregation located in a deteriorating neighborhood. In time, he began broadcasting his sermons on the radio and eventually gained the reputation as Philadelphia's foremost preacher. Later, he began delivering a weekly lecture on homiletics at Princeton Theological Seminary. In 1919, Macartney engaged in his first printed exchange with Harry Emerson Fosdick . In a piece entitled "The Trenches and
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#17327730043511044-494: A series of policies that have since been dubbed " cultural rule [ ja ; ko ] ". Furthermore, the movement went on to inspire other movements abroad, including the Chinese May Fourth Movement and Indian satyagraha protests. The anniversary of the movement's start has been celebrated since, although this was largely done in secret in Korea until its liberation in 1945. In South Korea, it
1131-684: A testimony that was later submitted into the American Congressional Record : It was on the 5th of March that I [joined a] procession at the South Gate . As we neared the Palace , a Japanese policeman seized me by the hair, and I was thrown violently to the ground. He kicked me mercilessly, and I was rendered almost unconscious. He rushed me along by my hair, and I was led to the Chongno Police Station. At
1218-422: A village at night, set it on fire, and killed people who attempted to put the fires out. On April 15, during the now infamous Jeamni massacre , Japanese authorities lured 20 to 30 Korean civilians into a church, opened fire on them, then burned the church down to hide evidence of the killings. There are reports of crucifixions being performed on Korean Christians; this is attested to in one photograph, which
1305-647: A year travelling in England, Scotland, and France. Upon his return he briefly returned to Beaver Falls to visit another brother and worked as a reporter with the Beaver Times . In 1902, he enrolled in Yale Divinity School , though, still restless, he departed after one class, and transferred to Princeton Theological Seminary , where another brother was enrolled. It was about this time that Macartney's religious and vocational drift ended; he rejected
1392-449: Is a national holiday . The North Korean government initially celebrated it as a national holiday, but eventually demoted it and now does not evaluate the movement's significance similarly. It now promotes writings about the event that seek to emphasize the role of the ruling Kim family in the protests. In 1910, Japan formally annexed Korea . Japanese rule was initially especially tight. Japan took control over Korea's economy, and began
1479-462: The Jeamni massacre . Japanese authorities then conducted a global disinformation campaign on the protests. They promoted a wide range of narratives, including outright denial of any protests occurring, portraying them as violent Bolshevik uprisings, and claiming that Koreans were in need of the benevolent rule of Japan. These narratives were publicly challenged by sympathetic foreigners and by
1566-794: The Korean Declaration of Independence in the restaurant Taehwagwan [ ko ] and in Tapgol Park . The movement grew and spread rapidly. Statistics on the protest are uncertain; there were around 1,500 to 1,800 protests with a total of around 0.8 to 2 million participants. The total population of Korea at the time was around 16 to 17 million. Despite the peaceful nature of the protests, they were frequently violently suppressed. One Korean estimate in 1920 claimed 7,509 deaths and 46,948 arrests. Japanese authorities reported much lower numbers, although there were instances where authorities were observed destroying evidence, such as during
1653-616: The Korean Young People's Independence Organization ( 조선청년독립단 ; 朝鮮靑年獨立團 ) proclaimed and publicly distributed a declaration of independence, which they sent to the Japanese government, attendees of the Paris Peace Conference, and to representatives of various countries. The students were arrested en masse by Japanese authorities, although news of their act reached Korea. In late 1918, leaders of
1740-688: The virgin birth recommended a tolerance in the spirit of the Auburn Affirmation , Macartney was the leading voice calling for stricter adherence to the Five Fundamentals. Macartney's older, more liberal brother Albert spoke against him during this debate. In 1927, Macartney took up a new pastorate, at the First Presbyterian Church of Pittsburgh . This would be his largest congregation, regularly drawing 1200–1600 worshippers on Sunday mornings and about 900 at
1827-480: The "Thirty-fourth Representative" ( 민족대표 34인 ), effectively equating his significance to that of the signers of the declaration. Around noon on March 1, 1919, 29 of the 33 signers of the declaration gathered in Taehwagwan to start the protest. The signers conducted a prominent reading of the declaration in the restaurant. The Korean restaurant owner An Sunhwan ( 안순환 ; 安淳煥 ) rushed over and reported
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#17327730043511914-657: The 218 administrative districts in Korea hosted protests. Various locations often hosted multiple protests for weeks afterwards. Numerous small villages hosted three or four protests. For example, Hoengseong County held a series of protests from March 27 to mid-April. Protests often coincided with market days, and were often held at government offices. The protests were broadly supported across economic and religious spectrums, including groups such as merchants, noblemen, literati, kisaeng , laborers, monks, Christians, Cheondoists, Buddhists, students, and farmers. Korean shop owners reportedly closed their doors in solidarity with
2001-690: The American public as to the true conditions in the Far East. To extend sympathy and encouragement to the oppressed people of Korea in their struggle for freedom. To use its moral influence to prevent the recurrence of cruel treatment to which the Koreans have been subjected. To secure religious liberty to the Korean Christians.” March 1st Movement The March First Movement was a series of protests against Japanese colonial rule that
2088-526: The Church at Home", Fosdick argued that soldiers returning home from World War I would not be able to accept the traditional doctrines and mores and that the church needed to adjust its doctrines to the spirit of the age. In a response in The Presbyterian , Macartney argued that Christian truth was unchanging and could meet any crisis without needing to be changed. This exchange, however, was merely
2175-589: The Fosdick case was again raised, Bryan's support was again crucial to Macartney being elected as Moderator. Macartney's role at this Assembly was crucial in having Fosdick resign his position. In 1925, Bryan asked Macartney to attend the Scopes Trial with him, but Macartney refused. In 1926, when the Special Commission appointed to deal with New York Presbytery's ordination of two men who denied
2262-477: The Fourteen Points; for example, around this time it reportedly banned a foreign film from being screened in Korea because the film had images of President Wilson. After the conclusion of the war, various nations participated in the 1919–1920 Paris Peace Conference , during which the sovereignty of a number of nations was discussed. Koreans made a number of unsuccessful attempts to be represented at
2349-595: The Korean diaspora. The movement did not result in Korea's prompt liberation, but had a number of significant effects. It invigorated the Korean independence movement and resulted in the creation of the Korean Provisional Government . It also caused some damage to Japan's international reputation and caused the Japanese colonial government to grant some limited cultural freedoms to Koreans under
2436-830: The Liberty Bell he touched it with his right hand. A centennial celebration of the congress has been held at the Little Theater in Philadelphia on April 12–14, 2019. The second day has been held in the Church of the Holy Trinity, Philadelphia in Rittenhouse Square. The Council of the City of Philadelphia has recognized the centennial celebration. The League of Friends of Korea was an organization that
2523-652: The Presbyterian Church in the USA to take action to silence Fosdick. At the General Assembly of 1923, Macartney found an ally in William Jennings Bryan , whose arguments on the floor of the Assembly were crucial to securing a vote to affirm the denomination's commitment to the so-called "Five Fundamentals" and ordering New York Presbytery to deal with Fosdick. In the 1924 General Assembly, where
2610-652: The Soviet Union and fight Japan. Koreans in Hawaii organized an impromptu meeting upon hearing of the protests that was attended by around 600. A followup meeting dubbed the First Korean Congress was symbolically held in Philadelphia , which they viewed as "the cradle of liberty" in the U.S. They sent statements to President Wilson, but were ignored. The Japanese Government-General of Chōsen
2697-478: The Soviet newspaper Izvestia , gatherings became treated with suspicion by Japanese authorities. In one instance, after a Korean attendee of a wedding was found to have documents linking him to the independence movement, Japanese authorities raided the wedding and conducted mass beatings and arrests. There are numerous reports of prison conditions being extremely poor. Seoul's Seodaemun Prison became infamous for
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2784-548: The Sunday evening service. He also held a Wednesday evening service, the sermons from which formed the basis of two books he later published: Things Most Surely Believed (1930) and What Jesus Really Taught (1958). In 1930, he founded the Tuesday Noon Club for Businessmen, an interdenominational group of Pittsburgh businessmen who met Tuesdays at noon for lunch, singing, and a brief inspirational message - eventually,
2871-777: The Theater to Independence Hall , where the Independence of America was declared and signed, each man and woman carrying a Korean and American flag. Dr. Syngman Rhee read in the Hall the Korean Declaration of Independence by the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea on March 1, 1919. After the reading of the Korean Declaration of Independence, the delegates formed in line and as each man passed
2958-615: The U.S. and the Allies reportedly greatly increased. The sincerity behind Wilson's advocacy for self-determination is debated. Some scholars argue his advocacy was limited to the former colonies of the defeated Central Powers , which Japan was not a part of. Historian Ku Daeyeol argues Wilson's efforts were sincere, but frustrated by geopolitical realities. The U.S. would not begin openly advocating for Korean independence until decades later, after it joined World War II against Japan. The Japanese colonial government suppressed discussion of
3045-535: The West, particularly liberal democracy , which they received in part via the Japanese Taishō Democracy movement and Wilson's Fourteen Points. By early 1919, their ideas coalesced, and they also became angered by the rebuffing of the Korean representatives to the Paris Peace Conference, by the brutality of Japanese rule, and by the possibility that Gojong had been poisoned. On February 8, 600 students of
3132-723: The Westminster Confession within the PCUSA. Macartney continued to preach his conservative message in sermons which he disseminated in pamphlets and in over forty books. He was a frequent preacher on college campuses in the following decades and was asked to deliver the Stone Foundation Lectures at Princeton, the Smythe Lectures at Columbia Theological Seminary , and the Payton Lectures at Fuller Theological Seminary . He opposed
3219-427: The border with both Russia and China. In addition, the ratio of Japanese security forces to civilians was lower in the area. In Chūseihoku-dō ( North Chungcheong Province ) and Chūseinan-dō, some radical groups attacked and destroyed Japanese government offices and police stations. Zenrahoku-dō ( North Jeolla Province ) had protests that have been characterized as less intense than others. This has been attributed to
3306-800: The city. News of the protests spread rapidly in Seoul, and marching and public demonstations continued for many hours afterwards. That day, around 3,000 copies of the declaration were distributed around Seoul. These protestors were reportedly consistently peaceful. The declaration contains the text "We entertain no spirit of vengeance towards Japan... [L]et there be no violence". The protestors were often met with violent repression by Japanese authorities, which resulted in deaths and arrests. That same day, similar protests were held in other cities in Korea, including in Pyongyang , Chinnamp'o , Anju , and Wonsan . Despite Japanese repression of information, news of
3393-548: The conference. The Korean-American Korean National Association attempted to send Syngman Rhee and Henry Chung [ ko ] to the conference, but the U.S. government denied them permission to go. A group of Koreans in China , the New Korean Youth Party [ ko ] , managed to send Kim Kyu-sik with the Chinese delegation. Chinese leaders, hoping to embarrass Japan, attempted to put
3480-592: The cooperation of major politicians and groups in Korea. Some negotiations were strained and took months; they became so disheartened by these setbacks that they reportedly even considered abandoning their plan. However, the events of January and February 1919 caused a spike in pro-independence activism; around this time, they were able to quickly secure a number of significant alliances. They found that some groups had already been independently planning protests. For example, Presbyterian leaders in Pyongyang reportedly had
3567-405: The day of Gojong's public funeral, in order to capitalize on the significant number of people congregating in Seoul. From February 25 to 27, thirty-three representatives [ ko ] from these various groups held a series of secret meetings in Seoul, during which they signed the Korean Declaration of Independence . From 6 p.m. to 10 p.m. on February 27, they printed 21,000 copies of
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3654-450: The declaration at the printing facilities of Posŏngsa [ ko ] , a publisher affiliated with Cheondoism. On the morning of the 28th, they distributed these copies around the peninsula. They also coordinated the distribution of copies to members of the Korean diaspora, to U.S. President Wilson, and to participants in the Paris Peace Conference. That day, they held a final meeting at Son Byong-hi's house and reviewed their plans for
3741-553: The development of new branches. Meetings often led to participants sending resolutions to Congress asking for action from the U.S. government to show sympathy for the Korean people. The details of various mass meetings of the League of Friends of Korea were published in the Korea Review , a magazine written by Korean American activist Philip Jaisohn . The objectives of the League as seen in their first resolution were: “To inform
3828-426: The end of the document's reading, cheers of "long live Korean independence" ( 대한독립 만세 ) erupted continually from the crowd, and they filed out onto the main street Jongno for a public march. By the time the marchers reached the gate Daehanmun of the former royal palace Deoksugung , their numbers had swelled to the tens of thousands. From there, a number of splinter groups marched in different directions throughout
3915-652: The entrance of the police office twenty or more Japanese policemen, who stood in line, kicked me and struck me [...] in the face so many times... I was made to kneel down with my legs bound together, and each question and answer was accompanied alternately by blows to the face... An April 12 cablegram, sent from Shanghai to the Korean National Association in San Francisco, read: Japan began massacring in Korea. Over [one] thousand unarmed people killed in Seoul during three hours' demonstration on
4002-497: The event to the Japanese Government-General of Chōsen , which caused the signers to be arrested by around 80 Japanese military police officers. Meanwhile, around 4,000 to 5,000 people assembled at Tapgol Park after hearing there was going to be an announcement made there. Around 2 p.m., an unidentified young man rose up before the crowd and began reading the Korean Declaration of Independence aloud. Near
4089-464: The great American public, to give us your moral and material help so that our brethren in Korea will know that your sympathy is with them and that you are truly the champions of liberty and international justice.” The congress adopted a resolution on the “Aims and Aspirations of the Koreans” which proposed a government modeled after that of America, freedom of religion, free commerce with all nations of
4176-530: The group had over 2000 members, with a regular attendance of over 800. In the denominational politics of the following decade, Macartney often advocated a more moderate approach than that favored by J. Gresham Machen. Although he initially opposed founding Westminster Theological Seminary in 1929 when Princeton Theological Seminary was re-organized by the denomination along semi-modernist lines, he agreed to serve on Westminster's board. He opposed Machen's creation of an independent missions board, and, after Machen
4263-517: The guiding principle of Christian democracy. We beg respectfully to point out that Korea was an independent kingdom until the year of 1905, and that in 1882 the United States was a party to the covenant guaranteeing the integrity and independence of Korea. We submit this request to you recognizing your splendid championship of international justice, and also to you as the chief executive of the great Republic which has always stood for democracy and
4350-455: The larger Presbyterian Church in the United States of America . In October, the Presbytery of Jersey City ordained Macartney to the pastorate of the First Presbyterian Church of Paterson, New Jersey , a struggling downtown congregation, into which Macartney's energy breathed new life. During this period, Macartney became an outspoken advocate of prohibition . In 1914, he accepted a call from Arch Street Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia ,
4437-513: The liberal values of Wisconsin–Madison and Yale; and threw himself behind the doctrines of Old School Presbyterianism taught at Princeton. His professors included B. B. Warfield , Francis Patton , Robert Dick Wilson , and, his personal favorite, church historian Frederick Loetscher. Upon his graduation in 1905, he opted to seek ordination not in the Reformed Presbyterian Church in which he had been raised, but rather in
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#17327730043514524-732: The mistreatment and extrajudicial killings of prisoners. There, women were stripped naked in front of male guards. An April 22, 1919 pamphlet by the Presbyterian Church in America read: [When] they put Korean women in the question box—this, mind you, is before they are condemned at all—they are stripped absolutely naked... From here they have to walk across an open court where they can be seen by any one who pleases... Some women, who tried to cover themselves, had their hands tied behind them. There are reports that conditions were extremely cramped and dirty, and that some rooms were so cramped that people were unable to sit or lie down. William R. Giles,
4611-410: The more than 1,500 demonstrations. Several thousand were massacred by the Japanese police force and army. The aim was to gain United States support at the Paris Peace Conference in favor of the independence of Korea from Japan. The result was not attained because Wilson was not interested in challenging global power relations. Since Japan was one of the victors and Korea was its colony, a discussion of
4698-564: The morning of the third day Rabbi Henry Berkowitz gave a prayer and a speech on behalf of the Jewish Community of Philadelphia. He was followed by Reverend Croswell McBee, Rector of St. John's Church, Lansdowne, Pa. Rev. Tomkins read a communication from the Federation of Churches signed by Dr. MacFarland "proclaiming that the Federation of Churches and the ministers of that body in the United States will stand up in an appeal to
4785-425: The native Korean religion Cheondoism , including Kwŏn Tongjin [ ko ] , O Se-chang , and Son Byong-hi , reached a consensus that nonviolent resistance and turning international public opinion against Japan would be effective in advocating for Korea's independence. They also agreed that they needed assistance from other major groups in Korea. They dispatched representatives to negotiate and secure
4872-498: The number of protestors at around 20,000 to 30,000. This was around 10% of the total Korean population of the region at the time. One person, who had sent her son to the protest, later recalled what she had heard of it: I heard that a large crowd of people gathered from all over to hear the news. After the noon bell finished ringing, a large flag celebrating Korea's independence was unfurled. Everyone raised their own flags and shouted "long live Korean independence". The flag blocked
4959-407: The peninsula opening fire or conducting organized bayonet charges on unarmed protestors. During an intense raid on Suwon and Anseong , Japanese authorities reportedly burnt 276 private homes down, killed 29, and arrested around 2,000 people. Many Koreans were tortured and executed. On April 6, the Sucheon-ri massacre [ ko ] occurred, during which Japanese authorities entered
5046-460: The possibility that Gojong had been murdered has since been evaluated as having a critical impact on the timing of, and even the altogether occurrence of, the March First Movement. By the mid-1910s, several hundred Korean students were studying in Japan as part of Japan's cultural assimilation efforts. While there, they were exposed to and developed a variety of ideas, which they discussed and debated. Of particular interest to them were ideas from
5133-500: The protest in Seoul reached these cities quickly, as they were connected to Seoul via the Gyeongui and Gyeongwon railway lines. On March 2, more protests were held in Kaesong and Keiki-dō ( Gyeonggi Province ). On March 3, more were held in Yesan and Chūseinan-dō ( South Chungcheong Province ). Protests continued to spread in this fashion, until by March 19, all thirteen provinces of Korea had hosted protests. On March 21, Jeju Island held their first protest. All but seven of
5220-402: The protests, and began organizing their own. In Ussuriysk , a protest was held and suppressed on March 17. The Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan had been part of the Allies of World War I , and had signed agreements to suppress the Korean independence movement. Inspired by the Ussuriysk protest, the Koreans of the enclave Sinhanch'on in Vladivostok launched their own that same day, which
5307-486: The protests, with some reportedly refusing to reopen even after Japanese soldiers attempted to force them to. Some shop owners demanded the release of imprisoned protestors. The protests were decentralized and diverse. The diversity in the protests was influenced by local culture and religion. In some regions, Christians played a more significant role in organizing protests, and in others Cheondoists were more significant. The scholar Kim Jin-bong argued that Christians played
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#17327730043515394-484: The protests. They initially planned to start the protest by inviting thousands of observers to Tapgol Park in Seoul. However, they worried that if they were prominently arrested, angered Korean observers could possibly violently retaliate against authorities. In the interest of maintaining the non-violence of the protests, they decided to change the starting location to the less-visible restaurant Taehwagwan [ ko ] in Insa-dong . Foreigners also played
5481-554: The protests. Many of the movement's earliest protests were in the region, and a plurality of the signers were from there (11 of the 33). This region contained the second-largest city in Korea Pyongyang, was a center of Christianity, and produced a large number of intellectuals. North Hamgyong Province was the last province to join the protests; they began on March 10. Its protests have been characterized as less intense than others, possibly due to transportation being less developed there, as well as security being tighter due to it being on
5568-456: The region being relatively depleted after having previously heavily participated in the 1894–1895 Donghak Peasant Revolution and subsequent righteous army conflicts. In this province and in Zenranan-dō ( South Jeolla Province ), students often played a significant role in protests. Women both led and participated in many of the protests. A group of female students wrote a public letter entitled "From Korean School Girls" to world leaders that
5655-403: The rights of small nations. May we have the joy and happiness of receiving your favorable consideration of our petition?" Dr. Clarence E. Macartney , one of the leading ministers of the Christian Church in the City of Philadelphia, gave a speech in support of the Korean cause. At the end Rev. C. H. Min offered a prayer in Korean. After the Conference there was a parade across Philadelphia from
5742-451: The status of Korea was not undertaken. There were Koreans from New York, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, Wyoming, Nebraska, Iowa, Colorado, California, Pennsylvania and one from London. There was Dr. Syngman Rhee , who was chosen as one of the Korean representatives to the Paris Peace Conference, 1919 by the Korean National Association ( 대한인 국민회 ; 大韓人國民會 ), but failed to obtain permission to travel to Paris . The conference
5829-412: The sun, and the shouting echoed like thunder. When the Japanese authorities saw this, their faces turned ashen. Japanese authorities pressured the Chinese warlord Zhang Zuolin into suppressing the protest. This resulted in around 17 to 19 deaths. Like in Korea, the Koreans continued to hold protests for weeks afterwards; by mid-May they would host at least 50 more. Koreans in Russia also learned of
5916-450: The time of the movement. Japan had been successfully rapidly industrializing since the late 19th century. Around this time, Western theories surrounding social Darwinism and colonial civilizing missions gained significant traction in Japan. These theories were often used to justify and promote Japanese colonialism . The devastation during the 1914–1918 First World War was a shock to many, and motivated intellectuals in Korea and around
6003-543: The twenty-eighth. Japanese troops, fire brigades, and civilians are ordered [to shoot, beat, and hook [ sic ]] people mercilessly throughout Korea. Killed several thousand since twenty-seventh. Churches, schools, homes of leaders destroyed. Women made naked and beaten before crowds, especially leaders' family. The imprisoned being severely tortured. Doctors are forbidden caring wounded. Foreign Red Cross urgently needed. Foreigners were also reportedly persecuted by Japanese authorities. American missionary Eli M. Mowry
6090-402: The will of the entire Korean race of more than 20,000,000 people. This Provisional Government is republican in form, and its guiding spirit is that of true democracy. Men of liberal education and mostly of high Christian character constitute this government. Our sole aim is to regain the inalienable right of self-determination for our race, so that we may be able to develop as a free people under
6177-464: The winter of 1919. They were kept in conditions so cold that their hands, feet, and one of their faces froze. There are reports that prisoners were made to strip down in one building and run to another in the cold. One woman reportedly was made to walk from one prison barefoot through the snow to another in order to be processed for her release. Clarence E. Macartney Clarence Edward Noble McCartney (September 18, 1879 – February 19, 1957)
6264-530: The world to discuss liberal reforms, especially anti-colonialism , and ideals that would serve to discourage future such conflicts. After the end of the war in 1918, United States President Woodrow Wilson announced his vision for establishing peace and the new world order. This vision was dubbed the Fourteen Points, and included the right of national self-determination . Koreans who learned of Wilson's vision were inspired, and interpreted it as signaling support for their independence movement. Their sympathy to
6351-633: The world to make every country independent and free, and that includes Korea." An appointed Committee prepared a petition to be sent to Washington and to the Peace Conference in Paris. "We, the representatives of all Koreans residing outside of Korea, in Congress assembled in Philadelphia, Pa., April 14–16, 1919, have the honor to request you to recognize the Provisional Government of the Korean Republic, organized March 1, 1919, representing
6438-463: The world, education of the people, modern sanitary improvements, free speech and press, liberty of action on all matters provided thy do not interfere with the rights of other people or conflict with the laws and interests of the nations. In the morning of the second day the Catholic Rev. Father James J. Dean, president of Villanova College, offered a prayer and an address. A committee prepared
6525-798: Was a prominent conservative Presbyterian pastor and author . With J. Gresham Machen , he was one of the main leaders of the conservatives during the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy in the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America . Macartney was born in Northwood, Ohio , on September 18, 1879. His father, John L. McCartney was the pastor of the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America in Northwood and professor of Natural Science at Geneva College . His mother, born Catherine Robertson,
6612-520: Was also suppressed. They launched another the following day. In Moscow on August 12, a public rally in support of the March First Movement was held, and was reportedly attended by around 200 people, including at least one Soviet politician. The rally was left-leaning; its speakers, including an ethnic Korean Red Army officer (likely Yi Ouitjyong ), interpreted the movement in a socialist framework and advocated for Koreans to ally with
6699-655: Was approved for the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea to “declare that we pledge the moral, material and physical support to the cause of our country’s freedom”. An "Appeal to America" was also approved asking the Government of United States to “exert its good offices to save the lives of our freedom-loving brethren in Korea and to protect the American missionaries and their families who are in danger of losing their lives and property on account of their love for our people and their faith in Christ. We further ask you,
6786-418: Was censured for setting up this board, Macartney also opposed Machen's Presbyterian Constitutional Covenant Union. Ultimately Macartney resigned from Westminster's board rather than go along with these developments. Macartney did not leave the Presbyterian Church in the USA when Machen did in 1936. Rather, he became president of the League of Faith, a group founded in 1931 to promote fidelity to scriptures and
6873-515: Was created during the First Korean Congress. The first branch of the League was founded by Reverend Floyd W. Tomkins and George Benedict in Philadelphia. The League spread quickly gaining branches in many U.S. cities including Washington D.C., Chicago, and New York City. The branches of the League hosted mass meetings where they would educate members on the situation in Korea. Meetings featured multiple lectures from members along with
6960-556: Was held throughout Korea and internationally by the Korean diaspora beginning on March 1, 1919. Protests were largely concentrated in March and April, although related protests continued until 1921. In South Korea, the movement is remembered as a landmark event of not only the Korean independence movement , but of all of Korean history. The protests began in Seoul , with public readings of
7047-478: Was presided by Philip Jaisohn and opened by a prayer and a speech of Rev. Floyd W. Tomkins , rector of the Church of the Holy Trinity, Philadelphia in Rittenhouse Square and president of the Philadelphia Chapter of League of Friends of Korea, which had 25.000 members in United States and Hawaii . In the morning of first day there were the speeches of In the afternoon of the first day a message
7134-585: Was reportedly unaware that the protests would occur until they began, and was surprised by the scale and intensity of them. It rushed to recruit people from various backgrounds, including firemen and security guards at railroads, to stop the protests. The government-general received more military police and police officers from Japan, as well as more army divisions. They equipped these groups with lethal weapons and distributed them around Korea. A significant number of mass murders of Korean civilians occurred. There are numerous reports of Japanese authorities around
7221-422: Was reprinted in American newspapers and paired with expressions of outrage. Korean schoolgirls are attested to being stripped and publicly flogged. An anecdote attested to claims a girl had her hand cut off by a Japanese soldier because she was holding a copy of the declaration. She then reportedly switched to holding the item in her other hand, and continued to protest. One female student of Ewha Haktang gave
7308-556: Was reprinted in international newspapers. The role of women in the protests was hailed by international feminist observers, and described as a milestone in their changing social status, especially in contrast to their status during the conservative Joseon period . On March 7, Koreans in Manchuria learned of the movement. They held a large protest in Longjing on March 13. Estimates of the number of protestors vary, although some put
7395-501: Was seen as inadequate compensation. This caused a significant decline in the quality of life for many farmers and laborers, who began publicly protesting their treatment. In 1916, there were 6 strikes with 362 participants. In 1917, there were 8 strikes with 1,128, and by 1918 there were 50 strikes with 4,442. Historians of the National Institute of Korean History argue that this reflected increasing discontent in Korea around
7482-535: Was sentenced to hard labor for allegedly harboring demonstrators. An American woman was reportedly attacked in Pyongyang. According to the League of Friends of Korea , two American women "were beaten by the Japanese soldiers for no other reason than they were sympathetic with the Koreans". Japanese authorities searched the residences of foreigners, reportedly without warrant . According to an August 15 article in
7569-543: Was the daughter of a wealthy Scottish mill owner. The two met during a period when John McCartney was preaching on the Isle of Bute – Robertson's father was opposed to the marriage. Geneva College (and the Macartneys with it) moved to Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania , in 1880. In 1894, in response to John's respiratory problems, the family moved to Redlands, California , and then to Claremont in 1895 when John took up
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