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101-555: The fifteen Republican flamens were members of the Pontifical College , who administered state-sponsored religion. When the office of flamen was vacant, a pontifex could serve as a temporary replacement, although only the pontifex maximus is known to have substituted for the Flamen Dialis , one of the flamines maiores . The etymology of flamen remains obscure, and perhaps undecidable. The term

202-416: A templum devoted to Minerva , on the right side of the aedes of Jupiter, because the concept of "number" was invented by Minerva and the ritual predated the common use of written letters. The importance of this ritual is lost in obscurity, but in the early Republic it is associated with the appointment of a dictator clavi figendi causa , " dictator for the purpose of driving the nail," one of whom

303-495: A Roman magistrate holding imperium , perhaps by a Lex curiata de imperio , although scholars are not agreed on the finer points of law . A censor had auspicia maxima . It is also thought that the flamines maiores were distinguished from the minores by their right to take the auspicia maiora ; see Flamen . Signs that occurred without deliberately being sought through formal augural procedure were auspicia oblativa . These unsolicited signs were regarded as sent by

404-683: A carmen (plural carmina ) is a chant, hymn , spell , or charm. In essence "a verbal utterance sung for ritualistic purposes", the carmen is characterized by formulaic expression, redundancy, and rhythm. Fragments from two archaic priestly hymns are preserved, the Carmen Arvale of the Arval Brethren and the Carmina Saliaria of the Salii . The Carmen Saeculare of Horace , though self-consciously literary in technique,

505-505: A deity or deities to express either approval or disapproval for a particular undertaking. The prodigy ( prodigium ) was one form of unfavourable oblativa . Contrast auspicia impetrativa . Private and domestic religion was linked to divine signs as state religion was. It was customary in patrician families to take the auspices for any matter of consequence such as marriages, travel, and important business. The scant information about auspicia privata in ancient authors suggests that

606-546: A dictator drove a ritual nail, and the senate appointed one for that purpose. The ritual of "driving the nail" was among those revived and reformed by Augustus, who in 1 AD transferred it to the new Temple of Mars Ultor . Henceforth a censor fixed the nail at the end of his term. A collegium ("joined by law"), plural collegia , was any association with a legal personality . The priestly colleges oversaw religious traditions, and until 300 BC only patricians were eligible for membership. When plebeians began to be admitted,

707-412: A heavy cloak called a laena . The laena was a double-thick wool cloak with a fringed edge, and was worn over the flamen's toga with a clasp to hold it around his throat. The apex was a leather skull-cap with a chin-strap and a point of olive wood on its top, like a spindle, with a little fluff of wool at the base of the spindle. This was the traditional outfit during a ritual or sacrifice performed by

808-468: A just war were both formal and substantive. As a formal matter, the war had to be declared according to the procedures of the ius fetiale . On substantive grounds, a war required a "just cause," which might include rerum repetitio , retaliation against another people for pillaging, or a breach of or unilateral recession from a treaty; or necessity, as in the case of repelling an invasion. See also Jus ad bellum . The English word "ceremony" derives from

909-524: A nail was driven in to mark the time. In Rome, the senior magistrate on the Ides of September drove a nail called the clavus annalis ("year-nail") into the wall of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus . The ceremony occurred on the dies natalis ("birthday" or anniversary of dedication) of the temple, when a banquet for Jupiter ( Epulum Jovis ) was also held. The nail-driving ceremony, however, took place in

1010-486: A political office. There may have been flamines appointed simply to stop their progression in power and politics for reasons such as making enemies or simply jealousy. In post-Antiquity usage, the designation "flamen" can apply, by extension, to priests in general. The flamen was a high position within Roman society and religion. Therefore, the selection process was difficult for those wishing to be chosen as flamen . In

1111-406: A positive meaning only in reference to the actions of the sacerdotes populi Romani ("priests of the Roman people"). It had the negative meaning of "contaminate" (= contaminare) or pollute when referring to the handling of sacred objects by those not authorized, ordained, or ritually purified. An augur (Latin plural augures ) was an official and priest who solicited and interpreted the will of

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1212-465: A term of augury for an action that rejects or averts an unfavourable omen indicated by a signum , "sign". The noun is abominatio , from which English " abomination " derives. At the taking of formally solicited auspices ( auspicia impetrativa ), the observer was required to acknowledge any potentially bad sign occurring within the templum he was observing, regardless of the interpretation. He might, however, take certain actions in order to ignore

1313-524: A toga was also said to be worn ritu Gabino ("in the Gabine rite"). Clavum figere ("to nail in, to fasten or fix the nail") was an expression that referred to the fixing or "sealing" of fate. A nail was one of the attributes of the goddess Necessitas and of the Etruscan goddess Athrpa (Greek Atropos ). According to Livy , every year in the temple of Nortia , the Etruscan counterpart of Fortuna ,

1414-412: A trade guild or neighborhood association; see Collegium (ancient Rome) . The comitia calata ("calate assemblies") were non-voting assemblies (comitia) called for religious purposes. The verb calare , originally meaning "to call," was a technical term of pontifical usage, found also in calendae ( Calends ) and calator . According to Aulus Gellius , these comitia were held in the presence of

1515-510: Is a spell that evokes the dead from their tombs; a carmen veneficum , a "poisonous" charm. Through magical practice, the word carmen comes to mean also the object on which a spell is inscribed, hence a charm in the physical sense. Castus is an adjective meaning morally pure or guiltless (English "chaste"), hence pious or ritually pure in a religious sense. Castitas is the abstract noun. Various etymologies have been proposed, among them two IE stems: * k'(e)stos meaning "he who conforms to

1616-506: Is equally plausible. At the time of the religious reformation by Augustus , the origins and functions of many of the long-neglected gods resident in Rome were confusing even to the Romans themselves. The obscurity of some of the deities assigned a flamen (for example Falacer , Palatua , Quirinus and Volturnus ) suggests that the office dated back to Archaic Rome. Many scholars assume that

1717-409: Is full of mystic force." As the sign that manifests the divine will, the augurium for a magistrate was valid for a year; a priest's, for his lifetime; for a temple, it was perpetual. The distinction between augurium and auspicium is often unclear. Auspicia is the observation of birds as signs of divine will, a practice held to have been established by Romulus , first king of Rome , while

1818-518: Is one of several Latin words that can be translated as "shrine" or "temple"; see also delubrum and fanum . For instance, the Temple of Vesta , as it is called in English, was in Latin an aedes . See also the diminutive aedicula , a small shrine. In his work On Architecture , Vitruvius always uses the word templum in the technical sense of a space defined through augury , with aedes

1919-541: Is suited for goddesses such as Venus , Flora , Proserpina and the Lymphae ; and the Ionic is a middle ground between the two for Juno , Diana , and Father Liber . Thus in theory, though not always in practice, architectural aesthetics had a theological dimension. The word aedilis (aedile) , a public official , is related by etymology ; among the duties of the aediles was the overseeing of public works , including

2020-509: Is traditionally connected with the Proto-Germanic verb *blōtaną ("to sacrifice"; cf. Gothic blotan ), by positing a Proto-Indo-European stem *bʰleh₂d-m(e)n- (or *bʰleh₂g-m(e)n- ), which could have originally meant "sacrifice". However, the link remains uncertain since it is impossible to decide whether the Latin form reflects an earlier flă-men , flăd-men or flăg-smen . Indo-European scholar G. Dumézil attempted to link

2121-508: The flamines existed at least from the time of the early Roman kings , prior to the establishment of the Republic . The Romans themselves credited the foundation of the priesthood to Numa Pompilius , the second king of Rome . According to Livy , Numa created the offices of the three flamines maiores and assigned them each a fine robe of office and a curule chair . The flamines were circumscribed by many taboos . The flamen

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2222-503: The augures (who read omens), the quindecimviri sacris faciundis ("fifteen men who carry out the rites"), and the epulones (who set up feasts at festivals). The title pontifex comes from the Latin for "bridge builder", a possible allusion to a very early role in placating the gods and spirits associated with the Tiber River , for instance. Also, Varro cites this position as meaning "able to do". The pontifex maximus

2323-415: The flamen Quirinalis , devoted to Quirinus . The deities cultivated by the twelve flamines minores were Carmenta , Ceres , Falacer , Flora , Furrina , Palatua , Pomona , Portunus , Volcanus (Vulcan), Volturnus , and two whose names are lost. The Vestal Virgins were the only female members of the college. They were in charge of guarding Rome's sacred hearth, keeping the flame burning inside

2424-535: The sacerdos (priest), but substances and objects can also be ritually castus . The cinctus Gabinus ("Gabine cinch") was a way of wearing the toga thought to have originated in the Latin town of Gabii . It was also later claimed to have been part of Etruscan priestly dress . The cinch allowed free use of both arms, essential when the toga was still worn during combat and later important in some religious contexts , particularly those involving use of

2525-403: The templum . The type of auspices required for convening public assemblies were impetrativa , and magistrates had the "right and duty" to seek these omens actively. These auspices could only be sought from an auguraculum , a ritually constructed augural tent or "tabernacle" ( tabernaculum ). Contrast auspicia oblativa . The right of observing the "greater auspices" was conferred on

2626-463: The Ara Maxima . Some trees were felix and others infelix . A tree (arbor) was categorized as felix if it was under the protection of the heavenly gods (di superi) . The adjective felix here means not only literally "fruitful" but more broadly "auspicious". Macrobius lists arbores felices (plural) as the oak (four species thereof), the birch, the hazelnut, the sorbus, the white fig,

2727-493: The Capitoline Hill . Such a position in Roman society came with many privileges which in turn gave flamines a unique power. In law and criminal courts, the flamen wielded great power. When a person was deemed a criminal, they could appeal to a flamen, who had the power of pardoning criminals. There were also several other privileges that the flamen possessed. According to Cyril Bailey these include: exemption from

2828-600: The Patria Potestas (lit. power of the father) of his father; the wearing of the toga praetexta ; and, the privileges of having a lictor of his own, of sitting on the curule chair, and having an ex officio place in the Senate. During the sack of Rome by the Gauls in 390 BCE, the flamines were also given a special task. In an attempt to preserve Roman culture and history, the flamines and other religious orders such as

2929-483: The Pontifex Maximus advised privati as well as the official priests about prodigies and their forestalling. By the time of Cicero, the taking of private auspices was falling into disuse. In pontifical usage, the verb averruncare , "to avert," denotes a ritual action aimed at averting a misfortune intimated by an omen. Bad omens ( portentaque prodigiaque mala) are to be burnt, using trees that are in

3030-528: The Regia (the old palace of the kings) during the early Republican period . They came to replace the religious authority that was once held by the king. A position, the rex sacrorum , was even created to replace the king for purposes of religious ceremonies. When Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire , Pope Leo I began using the title pontifex maximus around 440 to emphasize

3131-532: The Temple of Vesta . Around age 6 to 10, girls were chosen for this position and were required to perform the rites and obligations for 30 years, including remaining chaste. Membership in the various colleges of priests, including the College of Pontiffs, was usually an honor offered to members of politically powerful or wealthy families. Membership was for life, except for the Vestal Virgins whose term

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3232-454: The Vestals . Later, caerimoniae might refer also to other rituals, including foreign cults . These prescribed rites "unite the inner subject with the external religious object", binding human and divine realms. The historian Valerius Maximus makes clear that the caerimoniae require those performing them to attain a particular mental-spiritual state ( animus , "intention"), and emphasizes

3333-464: The augurium salutis in which every year the gods were asked whether it was fas (permissible, right) to ask for the safety of the Roman people (August 5); the augurium canarium , a dog sacrifice (see also supplicia canum ) to promote the maturation of grain crops, held in the presence of the pontiffs as well as the augurs "when ears of wheat have already formed but are still in the sheaths"; and

3434-564: The college of pontiffs in order to inaugurate the rex (the king in the Regal Period or the rex sacrorum in the Republic ) or the flamines . The pontifex maximus auspiciated and presided; assemblies over which annually elected magistrates presided are never calata , nor are meetings for secular purposes or other elections even with a pontiff presiding. The comitia calata were organized by curiae or centuriae . The people were summoned to comitia calata to witness

3535-419: The flamen and flaminica were allowed to sleep in the bed for ritual reasons, and under no circumstance could they spend the night away from the bed for any longer than three days. This was meant to create and ensure a strong relationship between the couple. The end of the bed was lined with "a thin layer of clay." The official costume of a flamen , allegedly of great antiquity, was a hat called an apex and

3636-481: The flamen and his wife were chosen, they then had to participate in a Roman tradition and ceremony known as captio . This ceremony was performed by an augur . It was the augur's job to make sure the gods would accept the new flamen . This was done by asking for the king of the gods, Jupiter's blessing, and the gods would respond by providing the proper signs to the people. These ceremonies were known as comitia calata ("callate assemblies") and they were performed on

3737-407: The flamen . The flamen would not wear the laena on a daily occurrence. The flamen would also wear special shoes known as calcei . The flamen dress represented status. Only flamines were able to wear such a costume. It separated them from average citizens, politicians, and military figures. The responsibility for the creation of such a costume fell in the hands of the flaminica . The costume

3838-449: The flaminica , were required to be patricians, and their parents had to be married through the ancient ceremony of confarreatio . This only applied to the flamen, because when they married his wife would become part of his family. Through the process of confarreatio , the wife would pass from the manus (hand) of her father to the hand of her husband . This transferred the father's authority to her husband who would also become part of

3939-488: The senate and consent of his successor, and as a divus he would be served by a flamen. The flamen 's role in relation to living emperors is uncertain; no living emperor is known to have received official divine worship; see Imperial cult . A flamen could also be represented by a proflamen , or by a member without that title who could act as a substitute for the flamen ( qui vice flaminis fungebatur ). The twelve flamines minores could be plebeians . Some of

4040-407: The signa , including avoiding the sight of them, and interpreting them as favourable. The latter tactic required promptness, wit and skill based on discipline and learning. Thus the omen had no validity apart from the observation of it. The aedes was the dwelling place of a god. It was thus a structure that housed the deity's image, distinguished from the templum or sacred district. Aedes

4141-411: The state religion . The college consisted of the pontifex maximus and the other pontifices , the rex sacrorum , the fifteen flamens , and the Vestals . The College of Pontiffs was one of the four major priestly colleges; originally their responsibility was limited to supervising both public and private sacrifices, but as time passed their responsibilities increased. The other colleges were

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4242-439: The tutelage of underworld or "averting" gods (see arbores infelices above). Varro says that the god who presides over the action of averting is Averruncus . A " just war " was a war considered justifiable by the principles of fetial law (ius fetiale) . Because war could bring about religious pollution, it was in itself nefas , "wrong," and could incur the wrath of gods unless iustum , "just". The requirements for

4343-475: The vernisera auguria mentioned by Festus , which should have been a springtime propitiary rite held at the time of the harvest ( auguria messalia ). The auspex , plural auspices , is a diviner who reads omens from the observed flight of birds ( avi- , from avis , "bird", with -spex , "observer", from spicere ). See auspicia following and auspice . The auspicia ( au- = avis , "bird"; -spic- , "watch") were originally signs derived from observing

4444-568: The vestals were in charge of the sacred and religious items of Rome. Their objective was to take these treasures out of Rome so they would not be destroyed by the Gauls. Ralph Mathisen writes, "Their sacred cult should not be abandoned as long as a single person survived to observe it". The flamines were also prohibited from many different actions and rituals. In the case of death, flamines were in charge of performing ritual sacrificing. However, other than that, contact with anything related to death

4545-490: The Augurs were written collections probably of the decreta and responsa of the college of augurs . Some scholarship, however, maintains that the commentarii were precisely not the decreta and responsa . The commentaries are to be distinguished from the augurs' libri reconditi , texts not for public use. The books are mentioned by Cicero , Festus , and Servius Danielis . Livy includes several examples of

4646-462: The Latin caerimonia or caeremonia , a word of obscure etymology first found in literature and inscriptions from the time of Cicero (mid-1st century BC), but thought to be of much greater antiquity. Its meaning varied over time. Cicero used caerimonia at least 40 times, in three or four different senses: "inviolability" or "sanctity", a usage also of Tacitus ; "punctilious veneration", in company with cura (carefulness, concern); more commonly in

4747-541: The Senate on issues pertaining to the gods, the supervision of the calendar and thus the supervision of ceremonies with their specific rituals, and the appeasement of the gods upon the appearance of prodigies . One of their most important duties was their guardianship of the libri pontificales (pontifical books). Among these were the acta , indigitamenta (lists of invocations or names of deities), ritualia , commentarii , fasti , and annales (yearly records of magistrates and important events). These items were under

4848-528: The actions of certain sacred chickens ; ex quadrupedibus , signs from the behavior of four-legged animals; and ex diris , threatening portents. In official state augury at Rome, only the auspicia ex caelo and ex avibus were employed. The taking of the auspices required ritual silence (silentium) . Watching for auspices was called spectio or servare de caelo . The appearance of expected signs resulted in nuntiatio , or if they were unfavourable obnuntiatio . If unfavourable auspices were observed,

4949-664: The authority of the pope . The term "chief priests" in the New Testament (e.g. Mark 15:11) is translated as Pontifices in the Latin Vulgate and "high priest" as Pontifex in Hebrews 2:17. The pontiffs were assisted by pontifical clerks or scribes ( scribae ) , a position known in the earlier Republican period as a scriba pontificius but by the Augustan period as a pontifex minor . A pontifex minor assisted at

5050-507: The building and maintenance of temples. The temple (aedes) of Flora, for instance, was built in 241 BC by two aediles acting on Sibylline oracles . The plebeian aediles had their headquarters at the aedes of Ceres . In religious usage, ager (territory, country, land, region) was terrestrial space defined for the purposes of augury in relation to auspicia . There were five kinds of ager : Romanus, Gabinus, peregrinus, hosticus and incertus . The ager Romanus originally included

5151-463: The business at hand was stopped by the official observer, who declared alio die ("on another day"). The practice of observing bird omens was common to many ancient peoples predating and contemporaneous with Rome, including the Greeks, Celts, and Germans. Auspicia impetrativa were signs that were solicited under highly regulated ritual conditions (see spectio and servare de caelo ) within

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5252-475: The case of the Flamen Dialis , they were appointed by the Pontifex Maximus . By the Pontifical College , three nominations were given to the pontifex maximus , those whom Romans believed to be the most worthy of such position. The Pontifex Maximus did not just select a new Flamen Dialis , but "scrutinized each candidate's qualifications in order to ensure that he and his wife were fit to serve." After

5353-541: The citadel ( arx ), on the Quirinal Hill , and on the Palatine Hill . Festus said that originally the auguraculum was in fact the arx . It faced east, situating the north on the augur's left or lucky side. A magistrate who was serving as a military commander also took daily auspices, and thus a part of camp-building while on campaign was the creation of a tabernaculum augurale . This augural tent

5454-481: The city of Rome and in the countryside would have been simple, open-air structures; they may have been located within a sacred precinct ( templum ), but often without an aedes housing a cult image. An altar that received food offerings might also be called a mensa , "table." Perhaps the best-known Roman altar is the elaborate and Greek-influenced Ara Pacis , which has been called "the most representative work of Augustan art." Other major public altars included

5555-456: The college of the Salii were never opened to the plebeians. The number of members in the College of Pontiffs grew over time. Originally consisting of three members, the number was increased to nine by the third century BC; Sulla increased the number to fifteen; Augustus increased the number even further, perhaps to as many as twenty-five. Until the 3rd century BC, the College elected the pontifex maximus from their own number. The right of

5656-459: The college to elect their own pontifex maximus was returned, but the circumstances surrounding this are unclear. This changed again after Sulla, when in response to his reforms, the election of the pontifex maximus was once again placed in the hands of an assembly of seventeen of the twenty-five tribes. However, the College still controlled which candidates the assembly voted on. During the Empire,

5757-596: The deities whose cult they tended were rather obscure, and only ten are known by name: There were two other flamines minores during the Republican period, but the names of the deities they cultivated are unknown. The flamines minores seem mostly connected to agriculture or local cults. The change to an urban way of life may explain why these deities lost their importance or fell into oblivion. The Floralis and Pomonalis are not recorded in calendars as their festivals were moveable. Some information exists for

5858-412: The difference was not substantial. Others, among them Dumézil , believe that inherent differences lay in the right of the auspicia maiora and the ritual of inauguration that concerned only the maiores by birth as farreati , that is, as children of parents married through the ritual of confarreatio , which was the form of marriage in turn required for maiores . The maiores also had

5959-414: The duties of the flaminica and she could not perform the duties of her husband. One example would be the honour killing and sacrifice of a ram, which was known as an offering to Jupiter and could only be done by the flaminica on market days. The flamen couldn't perform his sacred duties without the flaminica . These positions of serving the gods were meant to be served together as husband and wife. This

6060-420: The flamen to avoid contact with raw meat. However, Roman accounts do not include such events in their writings. Another thing flamines were forbidden from was binding. They could not be bound to anything because it could hinder and jeopardize their position as flamen . Therefore, the only bind they were tied to was their religious position and priesthood. A flamen had to be married. The flamen and his wife,

6161-750: The flight of birds within the templum of the sky. Auspices are taken by an augur . Originally they were the prerogative of the patricians , but the college of augurs was opened to plebeians in 300 BC. Only magistrates were in possession of the auspicia publica , with the right and duty to take the auspices pertaining to the Roman state . Favorable auspices marked a time or location as auspicious, and were required for important ceremonies or events, including elections, military campaigns and pitched battles. According to Festus , there were five kinds of auspicia to which augurs paid heed: ex caelo , celestial signs such as thunder and lightning; ex avibus , signs offered by birds; ex tripudiis , signs produced by

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6262-402: The four defined categories. The powers and actions of magistrates were based on and constrained by the nature of the ager on which they stood, and ager in more general usage meant a territory as defined legally or politically. The ager Romanus could not be extended outside Italy (terra Italia) . The focal point of sacrifice was the altar ( ara , plural arae ). Most altars throughout

6363-523: The gods regarding a proposed action. The augur ritually defined a templum , or sacred space, declared the purpose of his consultation, offered sacrifice, and observed the signs that were sent in return, particularly the actions and flight of birds. If the augur received unfavourable signs, he could suspend, postpone or cancel the undertaking ( obnuntiatio ). "Taking the auspices" was an important part of all major official business, including inaugurations, senatorial debates, legislation, elections and war, and

6464-402: The gods. Another disadvantage for the flamines was that they "were also forbidden to touch, see, or refer to yeast, raw meat, goats, dogs, ivy, or beans," because it was thought that these could interfere with the flamen 's religious practices. Most of these were associated with unsanitariness or death. When these flamines would have to perform ritual sacrifices, it was almost impossible for

6565-576: The head is a distinctive feature of Roman rite in contrast with Etruscan practice or ritus graecus , "Greek rite." In Roman art, the covered head is a symbol of pietas and the individual's status as a pontifex , augur or other priest. It has been argued that the Roman expression of piety capite velato influenced Paul 's prohibition against Christian men praying with covered heads: "Any man who prays or prophesies with his head covered dishonors his head." In classical Latin, carmen usually means "song, poem, ode." In magico-religious usage,

6666-746: The importance of caerimoniae in the dedication and first sentence of his work. In Valerius's version of the Gallic siege of Rome , the Vestals and the Flamen Quirinalis rescue Rome's sacred objects ( sacra ) by taking them to Caere ; thus preserved, the rites take their name from the place. Although this etymology makes a meaningful narrative connection for Valerius, it is unlikely to be correct in terms of modern scientific linguistics . An Etruscan origin has sometimes been proposed. Wagenvoort thought that caerimonia derived from caerus , "dark" in

6767-430: The institution of augury was attributed to his successor Numa . For Servius , an augurium is the same thing as auspicia impetrativa , a body of signs sought through prescribed ritual means. Some scholars think auspicia would belong more broadly to the magistracies and the patres while the augurium would be limited to the rex sacrorum and the major priesthoods. Ancient sources record three auguria :

6868-452: The names and epithets of gods, see List of Roman deities . For public religious holidays, see Roman festivals . For temples see the List of Ancient Roman temples . Individual landmarks of religious topography in ancient Rome are not included in this list; see Roman temple . The verb abominari ("to avert an omen", from ab- , "away, off," and ominari , "to pronounce on an omen") was

6969-503: The office was publicly elected from the candidates of existing pontiffs, until the Emperors began to automatically assume the title, following Julius Caesar ’s example. The pontifex maximus was a powerful political position to hold and the candidates for office were often very active political members of the College. Many, such as Julius Caesar, went on to hold consulships during their time as pontifex maximus . However, after 44 BC

7070-511: The pear, the apple, the grape, the plum, the cornus and the lotus. The oak was sacred to Jupiter , and twigs of oak were used by the Vestals to ignite the sacred fire in March every year. Also among the felices were the olive tree, a twig of which was affixed to the hat of the Flamen Dialis , and the laurel and the poplar, which crowned the Salian priests . Arbores infelices were those under

7171-472: The plural caerimoniae , to mean "ritual prescriptions" or "ritual acts." The plural form is endorsed by Roman grammarians. Hendrik Wagenvoort maintained that caerimoniae were originally the secret ritual instructions laid down by Numa , which are described as statae et sollemnes , "established and solemn." These were interpreted and supervised by the College of Pontiffs , flamens , rex sacrorum and

7272-460: The pontiffs, as with the other official priests of Rome, lost their political influence. Martha Hoffman Lewis could only find four instances where the pontiff's advice was asked: before Augustus' marriage to Livia; in 37 BC when they ordered the removal of the body of one of the proscribed from the Campus; they made expiatory sacrifices on the day the emperor Claudius married Agrippina; and their advice

7373-453: The prescriptions of rite"; or * kas- , from which derives the verb careo, "I defice, am deprived of, have none..." i.e. vitia . In Roman religion, the purity of ritual and those who perform it is paramount: one who is correctly cleansed and castus in religious preparation and performance is likely to please the gods. Ritual error is a pollutant; it vitiates the performance and risks the gods' anger. Castus and castitas are attributes of

7474-413: The privilege of having calatores , assistants who carried out day-to-day business. The difference would thus be akin to that between magistracies with imperium and those with potestas only. College of Pontiffs The College of Pontiffs ( Latin : Collegium Pontificum ; see collegium ) was a body of the ancient Roman state whose members were the highest-ranking priests of

7575-538: The protection of chthonic gods or those gods who had the power of turning away misfortune ( avertentium ). As listed by Tarquitius Priscus in his lost ostentarium on trees, these were buckthorn , red cornel , fern , black fig , "those that bear a black berry and black fruit," holly , woodland pear , butcher's broom , briar , and brambles ." The verb attrectare ("to touch, handle, lay hands on") referred in specialized religious usage to touching sacred objects while performing cultic actions. Attrectare had

7676-441: The reading of wills, or the oath by which sacra were renounced ( detestatio sacrorum ). They took no active role and were only present to observe as witnesses. Mommsen thought the calendar abbreviation QRCF , given once as Q. Rex C. F. and taken as Quando Rex Comitiavit Fas , designated a day when it was religiously permissible for the rex to "call" for a comitium , hence the comitia calata . The Commentaries of

7777-649: The religion, traditions and beliefs of the ancient Romans. This legacy is conspicuous in European cultural history in its influence on later juridical and religious vocabulary in Europe, particularly of the Christian Church . This glossary provides explanations of concepts as they were expressed in Latin pertaining to religious practices and beliefs , with links to articles on major topics such as priesthoods, forms of divination, and rituals. For theonyms , or

7878-401: The religious cult. It was necessary for the wife to be a virgin and previously unwed before marriage to a prospective flamen . The flamen and the wife served together. In the case of either's death, the surviving priest would then step down from their position. It was viewed as unlucky to be widowed. The flamen and flaminica could not separate or divorce. The only way to escape a marriage

7979-461: The rite ( res divina ) for Juno performed each Kalends , the first day of the month. He took up a position in the Curia Calabra , a sacred precinct ( templum ) on the Capitoline Hill , to observe the new moon . Glossary of ancient Roman religion#comitia calata The vocabulary of ancient Roman religion was highly specialized. Its study affords important information about

8080-542: The ritual roles of the Portunalis in connection with the cult of the god Quirinus and Volcanalis in connexion with the cult of the goddess Maia on the Kalends of May. Also preserved is the list of deities invoked by the flamen Cerialis when he officiated at sacrifices to the goddesses Ceres and Tellus . Scholars disagree about some differences among flamines maiores and minores . Some maintain

8181-454: The senior priests of the state such as the flamines maiores . A calator was a public slave . Festus derives the word from the Greek verb kalein , "to call." At the traditional public rituals of ancient Rome, officiants prayed, sacrificed, offered libations , and practiced augury capite velato , "with the head covered" by a fold of the toga drawn up from the back. This covering of

8282-452: The sense of "hidden", hence meaning "darknesses, secrets." In his Etymologiae , Isidore of Seville says that the Greek equivalent is orgia , but derives the word from carendo , "lacking", and says that some think caerimoniae should be used of Jewish observances , specifically the dietary law that requires abstaining from or "lacking" certain foods. The calatores were assistants who carried out day-to-day business on behalf of

8383-482: The size of the colleges was expanded. By the Late Republic , three collegia wielded greater authority than the others, with a fourth coming to prominence during the reign of Augustus . The four great religious corporations ( quattuor amplissima collegia ) were: Augustus was a member of all four collegia , but limited membership for any other senator to one. In Roman society, a collegium might also be

8484-415: The sole possession of the College of Pontiffs and only they were allowed to consult these items when necessary. The Lex Acilia de intercalando bestowed power on the College to manage the calendar. Thus, they determined the days which religious and political meetings could be held, when sacrifices could be offered, votes cast, and senatorial decisions brought forth. The College of Pontiffs came to occupy

8585-455: The taking of private auspices was not different in essence from that of public auspices: absolute silence was required, and the person taking the auspices could ignore unfavourable or disruptive events by feigning not to have perceived them. In matters pertaining to the family or individual, both lightning and exta (entrails) might yield signs for privati , private citizens not authorized to take official auspices. Among his other duties,

8686-529: The term to the Sanskrit word brahman . Dumézil himself notes that the etymology has problems in terms of phonological shifts, and the cognates have not been universally accepted by modern scholars. Andrew Sihler considers the claim that flamen might be a cognate of the Vedic term to be as plausible. He notes that the hypothesis of a connection to Gothic blotan and via Proto-Indo-European *bʰleh₂d-m(e)n-

8787-449: The toga to cover the head ( capite velato ). The style's ancient martial associations caused it to be worn during Roman declarations of war . It was also used by the priest or official charged with guiding the plow creating the sulcus primigenius during the rituals attending the foundation of new colonies . In Latin, cinctus Gabinus could refer to the cinch itself or to the entire toga thus worn. In religious contexts, such

8888-456: The urban space outside the pomerium and the surrounding countryside. According to Varro , the ager Gabinus pertained to the special circumstances of the oppidum of Gabii , which was the first to sign a sacred treaty (pax) with Rome. The ager peregrinus was other territory that had been brought under treaty (pacatus) . Ager hosticus meant foreign territory; incertus , "uncertain" or "undetermined," that is, not falling into one of

8989-465: The usual word for the building itself. The design of a deity's aedes , he writes, should be appropriate to the characteristics of the deity. For a celestial deity such as Jupiter , Coelus , Sol or Luna , the building should be open to the sky; an aedes for a god embodying virtus ( valour ), such as Minerva , Mars , or Hercules , should be Doric and without frills; the Corinthian order

9090-515: Was 30 years. In the early Republic, only patricians could become priests. However, the Lex Ogulnia in 300 BC granted the right to become pontifices and augures to plebeians . Nevertheless, even in the late Republic it was still believed that the auspices ultimately resided with patrician magistrates, and certain ancient priesthoods: the Dialis , Martialis and Quirinalis flamines , and

9191-453: Was a partnership where each person was dependent on the other. This is why, when one died, the other would have to step down, because they were not allowed to replace their partner or continue by themselves. The three flamines maiores were required to be patricians : A fourth flamen maior was dedicated to Julius Caesar as a divinity ( divus ) of the Roman state. Thereafter, any deceased emperor could be made divus by vote of

9292-408: Was a sacred position within Roman society; however, it could be used for political purposes. Certain people could be appointed as flamines to stop them from gaining power. For example, flamines were not allowed to ride a horse; therefore, this would make it extremely difficult for such a person to lead and command an army. By attaining such a position, the flamines were not permitted to run or hold

9393-602: Was also a hymn, performed by a chorus at the Saecular Games of 17 BC and expressing the Apollonian ideology of Augustus . A carmen malum or maleficum is a potentially harmful magic spell. A fragment of the Twelve Tables reading si malum carmen incantassit ("if anyone should chant an evil spell") shows that it was a longstanding concern of Roman law to suppress malevolent magic. A carmen sepulchrale

9494-405: Was appointed for the years 363, 331, 313, and 263 BC. Livy attributes this practice to religio , religious scruple or obligation. It may be that in addition to an annual ritual, there was a "fixing" during times of pestilence or civil discord that served as a piaculum . Livy says that in 363, a plague had been ravaging Rome for two years. It was recalled that a plague had once been broken when

9595-400: Was handmade and a ritual blade known as secespikta was used in the process. The laena had to be made of wool, because wool was seen as pure and the most appropriate clothing to serve the gods. The flamen and the flaminica had special roles that could not be done by the other. This position in Roman society was held to a specific standard with strict rules. The flamen could not perform

9696-510: Was held to be an ancient prerogative of Regal and patrician magistrates . Under the Republic , this right was extended to other magistrates. After 300 BC, plebeians could become augurs. The solicitation of formal auspices required the marking out of ritual space ( auguraculum ) from within which the augurs observed the templum , including the construction of an augural tent or hut ( tabernaculum ). There were three such sites in Rome: on

9797-411: Was prohibited so that the flamen could partake in his religious duties. One extreme example was in the case of the flamen 's wife (Latin, flaminica ). They were not allowed to wear Calcei Morticini , "shoes made from the skin of an animal that had died of natural causes." Since the animal was not part of a religious ritual or offered to the gods, these shoes would be seen as impure and disrespectful to

9898-527: Was sought concerning reforms of the discipline of the haruspices . During the Kingdom of Roman history, the pontiffs were primarily concilia (advisers) of the kings, but after the expulsion of the last Roman King in 510 BC, the College of Pontiffs became religious advisers to the Roman Senate . As the most important of the four priestly colleges, the College of Pontiffs’ duties involved advising

9999-536: Was the center of religious and legal proceedings within the camp. Augurium (plural auguria ) is an abstract noun that pertains to the augur . It seems to mean variously: the "sacral investiture" of the augur; the ritual acts and actions of the augurs; augural law (ius augurale) ; and recorded signs whose meaning had already been established. The word is rooted in the IE stem *aug- , "to increase," and possibly an archaic Latin neuter noun *augus , meaning "that which

10100-445: Was the most important member of the college. Until 104 BC, the pontifex maximus held the sole power in appointing members to the other priesthoods in the college. The flamens were priests in charge of fifteen official cults of Roman religion, each assigned to a particular god. The three major flamens ( flamines maiores ) were the flamen Dialis , the high priest of Jupiter ; the flamen Martialis , who cultivated Mars ; and

10201-443: Was through death, because, once they attained their positions, they became the property of the deity they were assigned to. Since they ruled together, they were also responsible for performing certain rituals together. During certain practices and rituals, the flamen and flaminica had to follow certain rules, such as leaving during purification rituals. Another ritual practiced by the priest and priestess pertained to their bed. Only

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