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46-439: In particular animal groups such as vertebrates , molluscs and arthropods , the flesh is distinguished from tougher body structures such as bone , shell and scute , respectively. In plants , the "flesh" is the juicy, edible structures such as the mesocarp of fruits and melons as well as soft tubers , rhizomes and taproots , as opposed to tougher structures like nuts and stems . In fungi, flesh refers to trama ,

92-427: A jaw , hyoid and/or the middle ear ossicles . An iodine-concentrating organ called the endostyle , which functions as a filter feeding organ in aquatic animals has evolved into the thyroid in most vertebrates. Vertebrates vary in body length ranging from the frog species Brachycephalus pulex , a Brazilian flea toad, with a minimum adult snout–vent length of 6.45 millimetres (0.254 in) to

138-417: A central nervous system arising from a single nerve cord dorsal to the gut tube , headed by a series of (typically paired) brain vesicles, is unique to vertebrates. This is in stark contrast to invertebrates with well-developed central nervous systems such as arthropods and cephalopods , which have an often ladder-like ventral nerve cord made of paired segmental ganglia on the opposite ( ventral ) side of

184-525: A hollow neural tube ) running along the dorsal aspect of the notochord . Of particular importance and unique to vertebrates is the presence of neural crest cells, which are progenitor cells critical to coordinating the functions of cellular components. Neural crest cells migrate through the body from the dorsal nerve cord during development, initiate the formation of neuronal ganglia and various special sense organs. The peripheral nervous system forms when neural crest cells branch out laterally from

230-452: A lure to attract prey , who may mistaken the tail as a worm . The extinct armored dinosaurs ( stegosaurs and ankylosaurs ) have tails with spikes or clubs as defensive weapons against predators. Tails are also used for communication and signalling . Most canines use their tails to communicate mood and intention. Some deer species flash the white underside of their tails to warn other nearby deer of possible danger, beavers slap

276-589: A protein related to ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase are exclusively shared by all vertebrates and reliably distinguish them from all other animals. A specific relationship between vertebrates and tunicates is strongly supported by two CSIs found in the proteins Rrp44 (associated with the exosome complex ) and serine palmitoyltransferase . These are exclusively shared by species from these two subphyla, but not cephalochordates . This indicates hat vertebrates are more closely related to tunicates than cephalochordates. The "Notochordata hypothesis" suggested that

322-606: A series of crescentic openings from the pharynx to the outside. Each gill is supported by a cartilaginous or bony gill arch , which develop embryonically from pharyngeal arches . Bony fish have three pairs of gill arches, cartilaginous fish have five to seven pairs, while the primitive jawless fish have seven pairs. The ancestral vertebrates likely had more arches than seven, as some of their chordate relatives have more than 50 pairs of gill opens, although most, if not all, of these openings are actually involved in filter feeding rather than respiration . In jawed vertebrates ,

368-440: Is found in invertebrate chordates such as lancelets (a sister subphylum known as the cephalochordates ), though it lacks eyes and other complex special sense organs comparable to those of vertebrates. Other chordates do not show any trends towards cephalization. The rostral end of the neural tube is expanded by a thickening of the walls and expansion of the central canal of spinal cord into three primary brain vesicles :

414-675: Is the elongated section at the rear end of a bilaterian animal 's body; in general, the term refers to a distinct, flexible appendage extending backwards from the midline of the torso . In vertebrate animals that evolved to lose their tails (e.g. frogs and hominid primates ), the coccyx is the homologous vestigial of the tail. While tails are primarily considered a feature of vertebrates, some invertebrates such as scorpions and springtails , as well as snails and slugs , have tail-like appendages that are also referred to as tails. Tail-shaped objects are sometimes referred to as "caudate" (e.g. caudate lobe , caudate nucleus ), and

460-635: The Cephalochordata is the sister taxon to Craniata (Vertebrata). This group, called the Notochordata, was placed as sister group to the Tunicata (Urochordata). Studies since 2006 analyzing large sequencing datasets however strongly support Olfactores (tunicates + vertebrates) as a clade, and hence the placement of Cephalochordata as sister-group to Olfactores (known as the " Olfactores hypothesis "). The following cladogram summarizes

506-559: The Chengjiang biota and lived about 518 million years ago. These include Haikouichthys , Myllokunmingia , Zhongjianichthys , and probably Haikouella . Unlike the other fauna that dominated the Cambrian, these groups had the basic vertebrate body plan: a notochord, rudimentary vertebrae, and a well-defined head and tail. All of these early vertebrates lacked jaws in the common sense and relied on filter feeding close to

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552-474: The Izu–Ogasawara Trench at a depth of 8,336 metres (27,349 feet). Many fish varieties are the main predators in most of the world's freshwater and marine water bodies . The rest of the vertebrate species are tetrapods, a single lineage that includes amphibians (with roughly 7,000 species); mammals (with approximately 5,500 species); and reptiles and birds (with about 20,000 species divided evenly between

598-633: The Jurassic . The Cenozoic world saw great diversification of bony fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Over half of all living vertebrate species (about 32,000 species) are fish (non-tetrapod craniates), a diverse set of lineages that inhabit all the world's aquatic ecosystems, from the Tibetan stone loach ( Triplophysa stolickai ) in western Tibetan hot springs near Longmu Lake at an elevation of 5,200 metres (17,100 feet) to an unknown species of snailfish (genus Pseudoliparis ) in

644-464: The Latin vertebratus ("jointed"), from vertebra meaning "joint", in turn from Latin vertere to turn. All vertebrates are built along the basic chordate body plan of five synapomorphies . These are a rigid axial skeleton that includes a vertebral column developed around an elastic notochord . The notochord becomes the intervertebral discs , and runs dorsally to the gut tube along

690-574: The Placodermi and the Acanthodii , both considered paraphyletic . Other ways of classifying the vertebrates have been devised, particularly with emphasis on the phylogeny of early amphibians and reptiles. An example based on Janvier (1981, 1997), Shu et al. (2003), and Benton (2004) is given here († = extinct ): While this traditional classification is orderly, most of the groups are paraphyletic , i.e. do not contain all descendants of

736-831: The Tree of Life Web Project and Delsuc et al., and complemented (based on, and ). A dagger (†) denotes an extinct clade , whereas all other clades have living descendants . Hyperoartia ( lampreys ) [REDACTED] Myxini ( hagfish ) [REDACTED] † Euconodonta [REDACTED] † Myllokunmingiida [REDACTED]   † Pteraspidomorphi [REDACTED] † Thelodonti [REDACTED] † Anaspida [REDACTED] † Galeaspida [REDACTED] † Pituriaspida [REDACTED] † Osteostraci [REDACTED]   † Antiarchi [REDACTED] † Petalichthyida [REDACTED] † Arthrodira [REDACTED] † Ptyctodontida [REDACTED] † Entelognathus   [REDACTED]   Tail The tail

782-399: The blue whale , at up to 33 m (108 ft). With only one exception, the defining characteristic of all vertebrates is the vertebral column , in which the embryonic notochord found in all chordates is replaced by a segmented series of mineralized elements called vertebrae separated by fibrocartilaginous intervertebral discs , which are embryonic and evolutionary remnants of

828-565: The genetics of organisms. Phylogenetic classification is based solely on phylogeny . Evolutionary systematics gives an overview; phylogenetic systematics gives detail. The two systems are thus complementary rather than opposed. Conventional classification has extant vertebrates grouped into seven classes based on traditional interpretations of gross anatomical and physiological traits. The commonly held classification lists three classes of fish and four of tetrapods . In addition to these, there are two classes of extinct armoured fishes,

874-410: The prosencephalon ( forebrain ), mesencephalon ( midbrain ) and rhombencephalon ( hindbrain ), which are further differentiated in the various vertebrate groups. Two laterally placed retinas and optical nerves form around outgrowths from the midbrain, except in hagfish which may have secondarily lost the structures. The forebrain is more well-developed in most tetrapods and subdivided into

920-432: The telencephalon and diencephalon , while the midbrain dominates in fish and some salamanders . In vertebrates with paired appendages, especially tetrapods, a pair of secondary enlargements of the hindbrain become the cerebella , which modulate complex motor coordinations . The brain vesicles are usually bilaterally symmetrical , giving rise to the paired cerebral hemispheres in mammals . The resultant anatomy of

966-601: The animal to escape from a predator. Most birds' tails end in long feathers called rectrices . These feathers are used as a rudder, helping the bird steer and maneuver in flight ; they also help the bird to balance while it is perched. In some species—such as birds of paradise , lyrebirds , and most notably peafowl —modified tail feathers play an important role in courtship displays . The extra-stiff tail feathers of other species, including woodpeckers and woodcreepers , allow them to brace themselves firmly against tree trunks. In humans, tail bud refers to

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1012-418: The axial endoskeleton (enclosed by protective skeletal extensions known as neural arches ), with a fore-end enlargement that is contained within a distinct skeletonized braincase (hence the alternative name for vertebrates, the craniates ). All vertebrate embryos develop transient pharyngeal arches , which in fish develop into the branchial arches that support the gills . Other vertebrate features are

1058-860: The body part associated with or proximal to the tail are given the adjective " caudal " (which is considered a more precise anatomical terminology ). Animal tails are used in a variety of ways. They provide a source of thrust for aquatic locomotion for fish , cetaceans and crocodilians and other forms of marine life . Terrestrial species of vertebrates that do not need to swim, e.g. cats and kangaroos , instead use their tails for balance ; and some, such as monkeys and opossums , have grasping prehensile tails , which are adapted for arboreal locomotion . Many animals use their tail for utility purposes, for example many grazing animals, such as horses and oxens , use their tails to drive away parasitic flies and sweep off other biting insects. Some animals with broad, furry tails (e.g. foxes ) often wrap

1104-427: The brain (which itself is a fused cluster of segmental ganglia from the rostral metameres ). Molecular markers known as conserved signature indels (CSIs) in protein sequences have been identified and provide distinguishing criteria for the vertebrate subphylum. Specifically, 5 CSIs in the following proteins: protein synthesis elongation factor-2 , eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3 , adenosine kinase and

1150-409: The class's common ancestor. For instance, descendants of the first reptiles include modern reptiles, mammals and birds; the agnathans have given rise to the jawed vertebrates ; the bony fishes have given rise to the land vertebrates ; the traditional " amphibians " have given rise to the reptiles (traditionally including the synapsids or mammal-like "reptiles"), which in turn have given rise to

1196-473: The colour of any human skin. In Christian religious circles, the flesh is a metaphor associated with carnality . This anatomy article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Vertebrates Ossea Batsch, 1788 Vertebrates ( / ˈ v ɜːr t ə b r ɪ t s , - ˌ b r eɪ t s / ) are animals with a backbone or spine, consisting of vertebrae and intervertebral discs . The vertebrae are irregular bones , and

1242-556: The demise of virtually all jawless fishes save for lampreys and hagfishes, as well as the Placodermi , a group of armoured fish that dominated the entirety of that period since the late Silurian as well as the eurypterids , dominant animals of the preceding Silurian , and the anomalocarids . By the middle of the Devonian, several droughts, anoxic events and oceanic competition led a lineage of sarcopterygii to leave water, eventually establishing themselves as terrestrial tetrapods in

1288-408: The dorsal nerve cord and migrate together with the mesodermal somites to innervate the various different structures that develop in the body. The vertebrates are the only chordate group with neural cephalization , and their neural functions are centralized towards a series of enlarged clusters in the head , which give rise to a brain . A slight swelling of the anterior end of the nerve cord

1334-483: The first gill arch pair evolved into the jointed jaws and form an additional oral cavity ahead of the pharynx . Research also suggests that the sixth branchial arch contributed to the formation of the vertebrate shoulder, which separated the head as a distinct part of the body. In amphibians and some primitive bony fishes, the larvae bear external gills , branching off from the gill arches. These are reduced in adulthood, their respiratory function taken over by

1380-421: The gill arches form during fetal development , and form the basis of essential structures such as jaws , the thyroid gland , the larynx , the columella (corresponding to the stapes in mammals ) and, in mammals, the malleus and incus . The central nervous system of vertebrates is based on the embryonic dorsal nerve cord (which then flattens into a neural plate before folding and fusing over into

1426-400: The gut tube, with a split brain stem circumventing the foregut around each side to form a brain on the dorsal side of the mouth . The higher functions of the vertebrate CNS are highly centralized towards the brain (particularly the forebrain), while the invertebrate CNS is significantly more decentralized with the segmental ganglia having substantial neural autonomy independent of

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1472-443: The internal gills proper in fishes and by cutaneous respiration in most amphibians. While some amphibians such as axolotl retain the external gills into adulthood, the complex internal gill system as seen in fish apparently being irrevocably lost very early in the evolution of tetrapods , who evolved lungs (which are homologous to swim bladders ) to breathe air. While the more specialized terrestrial vertebrates lack gills,

1518-430: The intervertebral discs are of fibrocartilage . The vertebral column surrounds and protects the spinal cord . The other feature unique to vertebrates is the presence of a cranium , or skull. The vertebrates make up the subphylum Vertebrata with some 65,000 species in the phylum Chordata . The vertebrates include mammals , birds , amphibians , and various classes of reptiles and fish . Classes of fish include

1564-407: The jawless Agnatha , and the jawed Gnathostomata . The jawed fish include both the cartilaginous fish and the bony fish . Bony fish include the lobe-finned fish , which gave rise to the tetrapods , the animals with four limbs. Vertebrates make up less than five percent of all described animal species ; the rest are all invertebrates , that lack a backbone. The word 'vertebrate' derives from

1610-432: The length of an animal, hence the common name of backbone. The axial endoskeleton typically continues beyond the anus / cloaca to form an elongated tail . Some vertebrates evolved to become tailless with only a vestigial coccyx . A dorsal nerve cord , which folds and fuses into a hollow neural tube during embryonic development and eventually gives rise to the brain and spinal cord , runs more dorsally to

1656-460: The mammals and birds. Most scientists working with vertebrates use a classification based purely on phylogeny , organized by their known evolutionary history and sometimes disregarding the conventional interpretations of their anatomy and physiology. In phylogenetics , the relationships between animals are illustrated as a hierarchy known as a phylogenetic tree . The cladogram below is based on studies compiled by Philippe Janvier and others for

1702-411: The notochord. Hagfish are the only extant vertebrate whose notochord persists and is not integrated/ replaced by the vertebral column. A few vertebrates have secondarily lost this feature and retain the notochord into adulthood, such as the sturgeon . Most vertebrates are aquatic and carry out gas exchange via gills . The gills are carried right behind the head, bordering the posterior margins of

1748-455: The part of the embryo which develops into the end of the spine. However, this is not a tail. Infrequently, a child is born with a "soft tail", which contains no vertebrae, but only blood vessels , muscles , and nerves , but this is regarded as an abnormality rather than a vestigial true tail, even when such an appendage is located where the tail would be expected. Fewer than 40 cases have been reported of infants with "true tails" containing

1794-609: The relationships between the Olfactores (vertebrates and tunicates) and the Cephalochordata.   Amphioxiformes (lancelets)  [REDACTED]   Tunicata /Urochordata ( sea squirts , salps , larvaceans )  [REDACTED]   Vertebrata   [REDACTED] Vertebrates originated during the Cambrian explosion , which saw a rise in organism diversity. The earliest known vertebrates belongs to

1840-661: The seabed. A vertebrate group of uncertain phylogeny, small eel-like conodonts , are known from microfossils of their paired tooth segments from the late Cambrian to the end of the Triassic. The first jawed vertebrates may have appeared in the late Ordovician (~445 mya) and became common in the Devonian period , often known as the "Age of Fishes". The two groups of bony fishes , the Actinopterygii and Sarcopterygii , evolved and became common. The Devonian also saw

1886-429: The soft, inner portion of a mushroom , or fruit body. A more restrictive usage may be found in some contexts, such as the visual arts , where flesh may refer only to visibly exposed human skin, as opposed to parts of the body covered by clothing and hair . Flesh as a descriptor for colour usually refers to the non- melanated pale or pinkish skin colour of white humans, however, it can also be used to refer to

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1932-650: The succeeding Carboniferous . Amniotes branched from amphibious tetrapods early in the Carboniferous period. The synapsid amniotes were dominant during the late Paleozoic, the Permian , while diapsid amniotes became dominant during the Mesozoic . In the sea, the teleosts and sharks became dominant. Mesothermic synapsids called cynodonts gave rise to endothermic mammals and diapsids called dinosaurs eventually gave rise to endothermic birds , both in

1978-513: The tail around the body as means of thermal insulation like a blanket . Some species' tails serve aggressive functions, either predatorily or defensively . For example, the tails of scorpions have a stinger that contain venom , which can be used to either kill large prey or to fight off a threat. Similarly, stingrays have a thickened spine that can deliver penetrating trauma . Thresher sharks are known to use their long tails to stun prey. Many species of snakes wiggle their tails as

2024-402: The two classes). Tetrapods comprise the dominant megafauna of most terrestrial environments and also include many partially or fully aquatic groups (e.g., sea snakes , penguins , cetaceans). There are several ways of classifying animals. Evolutionary systematics relies on anatomy , physiology and evolutionary history, which is determined through similarities in anatomy and, if possible,

2070-536: The water with their tails to indicate danger, felids raise and quiver their tails while scent-marking , and canids (including domestic dogs ) indicate emotions through the positioning and movement of their tails. Rattlesnakes perform tail vibration to generate a distinct rattling noise that signals aggression and warns potential predators to stay away. Some species of lizard (e.g. geckos ) can self-amputate ("cast") their tails from their bodies to help them escape predators , which are either distracted by

2116-405: The wriggling detached tail or only manages to seize the severed tail while the lizard flees. Tails cast in this manner generally grow back over time, though the replacement is typically darker in colour than the original and contains only cartilage , not bone. Various species of rat demonstrate a similar function with their tails, known as degloving , in which the outer layer is shed in order for

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