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72-535: The Free Senior High School (Free SHS) education policy in Ghana was a government initiative introduced in the 2017 September Presidential administration of Nana Akufo-Addo . The policy's origination began as part of the President's presidential campaign during Ghana's 2016 election period , and has become an essential part of Ghana's educational system. The policy's core themes of access, equity and equality fulfil

144-420: A major cause of death – where it found little progress , suggests that successful control of conjoined threats such as pollution, climate change, and biodiversity loss requires a global , "formal science –policy interface", e.g. to " inform intervention, influence research, and guide funding". Broadly, science–policy interfaces include both science in policy and science for policy. Vice A vice

216-406: A broader range of actors involved in the policy space that includes civil society organizations , the media , intellectuals , think tanks or policy research institutes , corporations, lobbyists , etc. Policies are typically promulgated through official written documents. Policy documents often come with the endorsement or signature of the executive powers within an organization to legitimize

288-760: A closure and return to schools plan following the executive order of President Nana Kufo Addo, which ordered schools at all levels to close on 20 March 2020. Initially some SHS3 students were to be allowed to continue preparing for their West African Senior School Certificate Examination, but shortly after all schools were closed entirely. In addition the MoE ordered that, only the second year high school students should return to school to complete their second semester academic year, starting from 5 October 2020. A number of strategies were implemented to sustain education across levels despite closures, including lessons that were broadcast via television and radio segments across Ghana, as well as

360-496: A complex combination of multiple levels and diverse types of organizations drawn from the public, private, and voluntary sectors that have overlapping realms of responsibility and functional capacities". Key components of policies include command-and-control measures, enabling measures, monitoring, incentives and disincentives. Science-based policy, related to the more narrow concept of evidence-based policy , may have also become more important. A review about worldwide pollution as

432-432: A fairly successful public regulatory policy is that of a highway speed limit. Constituent policies are less concerned with the allocation of resources or regulation of behavior, and more focused on representing the preferences and values of the public. These policies involve addressing public concerns and issues that may not have direct economic or regulatory implications. They often reflect the broader values and beliefs of

504-527: A habit, but rather as a mere disposition and one that is in the process of being eliminated. Medieval illuminated manuscripts circulated with colorful schemas for developing proper attitudes, with scriptural allusions modelled on nature: the tree of virtues as blossoming flowers or vices bearing sterile fruit, The Renaissance writer Pietro Bembo is credited with reaffirming and promoting the Christian perfection of classical humanism. Deriving all from love (or

576-408: A policy whose reach extends further than the problem it was originally crafted to address. Additionally, unpredictable results may arise from selective or idiosyncratic enforcement of policy. The intended effects of a policy vary widely according to the organization and the context in which they are made. Broadly, policies are typically instituted to avoid some negative effect that has been noticed in

648-444: A policy. It can also be referred to as a "stages model" or "stages heuristic". It is thus a rule of thumb rather than the actual reality of how policy is created, but has been influential in how political scientists looked at policy in general. It was developed as a theory from Harold Lasswell 's work. It is called the policy cycle as the final stage (evaluation) often leads back to the first stage (problem definition), thus restarting

720-406: A rate so high that citizens are deterred from earning the money that is taxed. The policy formulation process theoretically includes an attempt to assess as many areas of potential policy impact as possible, to lessen the chances that a given policy will have unexpected or unintended consequences. In political science , the policy cycle is a tool commonly used for analyzing the development of

792-476: A religion but a Hellenistic philosophy, Epicurean ethics prescribes a therapeutic approach to the vices with the goal of attaining a life of pleasure with the aid of the virtues. Most of the techniques used in Epicureanism involve challenging false beliefs and attaining beliefs that are aligned with nature. In this, Epicureanism posits an entirely naturalistic, non-religious theory of virtue and vice based on

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864-487: A sequence set in motion a chain of causally linked reactions and counter-reactions which trigger subsequent development". This is a concept separate to policy sequencing in that the latter may require actions from a multitude of parties at different stages for progress of the sequence, rather than an initial "shock", force-exertion or catalysis of chains of events. In the modern highly interconnected world, polycentric governance has become ever more important – such "requires

936-810: A sequential order. The use of such frameworks may make complex polycentric governance for the achievement of goals such as climate change mitigation and stoppage of deforestation more easily achievable or more effective, fair, efficient, legitimate and rapidly implemented. Contemporary ways of policy-making or decision-making may depend on exogenously-driven shocks that "undermine institutionally entrenched policy equilibria" and may not always be functional in terms of sufficiently preventing and solving problems, especially when unpopular policies, regulation of influential entities with vested interests, international coordination and non-reactive strategic long-term thinking and management are needed. In that sense, "reactive sequencing" refers to "the notion that early events in

1008-475: A series of reformations have been made to the educational system to restructure colonial and foreign models to suit Ghanaian people, culture and customs. These amendments were what was deemed an appropriate educational model for the newly decolonized state. The 1961 Accelerated Development Plan (ADP) was established to attain the notion of ‘universal primary education’ with measures to abolish tuition fees and increase enrolment. The financial strain on households

1080-439: Is heuristic and iterative . It is intentionally normative and not meant to be diagnostic or predictive . Policy cycles are typically characterized as adopting a classical approach, and tend to describe processes from the perspective of policy decision makers. Accordingly, some post-positivist academics challenge cyclical models as unresponsive and unrealistic, preferring systemic and more complex models. They consider

1152-478: Is virtue . The modern English term that best captures its original meaning is the word vicious , which means "full of vice". In this sense, the word vice comes from the Latin word vitium , meaning "failing or defect". Depending on the country or jurisdiction, vice crimes may or may not be treated as a separate category in the criminal codes . Even in jurisdictions where vice is not explicitly delineated in

1224-450: Is a practice, behaviour, or habit generally considered morally wrong in the associated society. In more minor usage, vice can refer to a fault, a negative character trait, a defect, an infirmity, or a bad or unhealthy habit. Vices are usually associated with a fault in a person's character or temperament rather than their morality. Synonyms for vice include fault, sin , depravity, iniquity, wickedness, and corruption. The antonym of vice

1296-735: Is done. The State of California provides an example of benefit-seeking policy. In recent years, the numbers of hybrid cars in California has increased dramatically, in part because of policy changes in Federal law that provided USD $ 1,500 in tax credits (since phased out) and enabled the use of high-occupancy vehicle lanes to drivers of hybrid vehicles. In this case, the organization (state and/or federal government) created an effect (increased ownership and use of hybrid vehicles) through policy (tax breaks, highway lanes). Policies frequently have side effects or unintended consequences . Because

1368-529: Is essentially competitive, all the worst evils come into being. In Christian theology, it originally led to the Fall of Man , and, as a purely diabolical spiritual vice, it outweighs anything else often condemned by the Church. The Roman Catholic Church distinguishes between vice, which is a habit of sin, and the sin itself, which is an individual morally wrong act. In Roman Catholicism, the word sin also refers to

1440-420: Is justified in claiming that a specific policy is evidence-based if, and only if, three conditions are met. First, the individual or organization possesses comparative evidence about the effects of the specific policy in comparison to the effects of at least one alternative policy. Second, the specific policy is supported by this evidence according to at least one of the individual's or organization's preferences in

1512-525: The Sarvastivadin tradition of Buddhism , there are 108 defilements, or vices, which are prohibited. These are subdivided into 10 bonds and 98 proclivities. The 10 bonds are the following: Avoiding vice is an important theme in Jewish ethics , especially within musar literature . Christians believe there are two kinds of vice: The first kind of vice, though sinful, is believed less serious than

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1584-658: The United Nations modified Sustainable Development Goals , where member countries amalgamate those themes in their educational systems to certify adequate learning experiences for students. Respective politicians and social workers have been allocated the duty to ensure the policy's efficiency, productivity and further development. These leaders span from varying governmental departments including Ghana's Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning and Ghana Education Service and Ghana's Ministry of Education . A review of Ghana's former high school policies and operations led to

1656-426: The intent of the organization, whether government, business, professional, or voluntary. Policy is intended to affect the "real" world, by guiding the decisions that are made. Whether they are formally written or not, most organizations have identified policies. Policies may be classified in many different ways. The following is a sample of several different types of policies broken down by their effect on members of

1728-479: The public sector that necessitate tertiary education , could now be further encouraged. A gap reduction has formed in university graduates who acquire degrees without the achievement of secondary studies. Previously, 70% of high school students that desired government employee positions by the age of 25 was realistically achieved by only 6% of that percentage. Through the policy the labour market has expanded in diverse fields with more educated individuals to progress

1800-513: The Fall: The first three terraces of purgatory expiate the sins which can be considered to arise from love perverted, that is, sins which arise from the heart of the sinner being set upon something which is wrong in the eyes of God. Those being purged here must have their love set upon the right path. The fourth terrace of purgatory expiates the sins which can be considered to arise from love defective, that is, love which, although directed towards

1872-641: The Free SHS policy has improved political awareness and functionality within Ghana, through its ability to be both a political promise to society and eventually become a successful product of it. It has encouraged citizen understanding and trustworthiness of taxation in the belief that the tax will directly contribute to financing the policy. The Free SHS policy is a testament to modern day democratic politics where an initial intention results in an effective political impact, where policy and laws are executed in favour of

1944-471: The President's proposition would put at risk adequate funding for other government departments and political initiatives. The Senior minister of the Heritage Fund, Mr Yaw Osafo Marfo supported the President in using 9% of money the government's oil reserve to fund the first few years of the policy for it to become a stable program. The minority leader of the Heritage Fund, Mr Haruna Iddrisu supported

2016-649: The advice of the IMANI Centre for Policy and Education, in preferring for that reserve money to be saved for a potential, economic or social crisis that could occur in Ghana. The President followed through with his decision to use the oil reserves. In 2018, Nana Akuffo Addo and his team of governance introduced another initiative as part of the Free SHS Education Policy which is the Double Track System. The double track system

2088-493: The basis of the impact they will have. Policies can be understood as political, managerial , financial, and administrative mechanisms arranged to reach explicit goals. In public corporate finance, a critical accounting policy is a policy for a firm/company or an industry that is considered to have a notably high subjective element, and that has a material impact on the financial statements . It has been argued that policies ought to be evidence-based. An individual or organization

2160-414: The behavior and practices of individuals, organizations, or industries. These policies are intended to address issues related to public safety, consumer protection, and environmental conservation. Regulatory policies involve government intervention in the form of laws, regulations, and oversight. Examples include environmental regulations, labor laws, and safety standards for food and drugs. Another example of

2232-401: The correct subjects is too weak to drive the sinner to act as they should. Those being purged here must have their love strengthened so as to drive them correctly. The fifth, sixth, and seventh terraces of purgatory expiate the sins which can be considered to arise from love excessive, that is, love which although directed towards ends which God considers good is directed towards them too much for

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2304-504: The cycle. Harold Lasswell 's popular model of the policy cycle divided the process into seven distinct stages, asking questions of both how and why public policies should be made. With the stages ranging from (1) intelligence, (2) promotion, (3) prescription, (4) invocation, (5) application, (6) termination and (7) appraisal, this process inherently attempts to combine policy implementation to formulated policy goals. One version by James E. Anderson, in his Public Policy-Making (1974) has

2376-424: The decision making or legislative stage. When the term policy is used, it may also refer to: The actions an organization actually takes may often vary significantly from its stated policy. This difference is sometimes caused by political compromise over policy, while in other situations it is caused by lack of policy implementation and enforcement. Implementing policy may have unexpected results, stemming from

2448-427: The development of citizens and their society. The policy lifted the financial burden for most parents, who can now be more supportive in their child's academia without feeling dependent on scholarships or private benefits. In aim to afford long term educational costs, lower income households commonly neglect the short term educational costs. Hence the tuition payment for parents and guardians was essential obligation and

2520-836: The development of some limited distance or e-learning platforms. In January 2021 (after a 10-month closure), by presidential order schools were reopened in Ghana with the requirement that schools monitor students infection status through temperature checks and all students wear masks at all times. Policy Policy is a blueprint of the organizational activities which are repetitive/routine in nature. In contrast, policies to assist in objective decision-making are usually operational in nature and can be objectively tested, e.g. password policy. The term may apply to government, public sector organizations and groups, as well as individuals, Presidential executive orders , corporate privacy policies , and parliamentary rules of order are all examples of policy. Policy differs from rules or law . While

2592-467: The environments that policies seek to influence or manipulate are typically complex adaptive systems (e.g. governments, societies, large companies), making a policy change can have counterintuitive results. For example, a government may make a policy decision to raise taxes, in hopes of increasing overall tax revenue. Depending on the size of the tax increase, this may have the overall effect of reducing tax revenue by causing capital flight or by creating

2664-468: The essential creation of Free SHS. Ghana's Ministry of Education, observed the lack of efficiency in key areas; access to education, quality of education, and education management. The fifth Education Strategic Plan targeted for 2010 to 2020 , outline the government's key educational objectives. These objectives influenced by Ghana's 2008 Education Act, are implemented in the policy to regulate these legislative solutions. Since Ghana's Independence in 1957,

2736-572: The first year of implementing the program. The program have now been removed from the list of projects funded with the Annual Budget Funding Amount (ABFA). It is now funded by the Scholarship Secretariat. See also (The proposed use of the Heritage Fund to implement the free SHS education policy) The formation of the policy did not come without typical political and social backlash concerning as to how

2808-436: The following stages: Anderson's version of the stages model is the most common and widely recognized out of the models. However, it could also be seen as flawed. According to Paul A. Sabatier, the model has "outlived its usefulness" and should be replaced. The model's issues have led to a paradoxical situation in which current research and updated versions of the model continue to rely on the framework created by Anderson. But

2880-567: The formation of the SHS policy appealed to socialist beliefs and mechanisms to ensure that the policy would be collectively produced and managed without political prejudices over previous policies. Educational institutions have rightly so produced their own research on the resources, schools, teachers, and students to assess the effectiveness of the policy. The quantity of students now enrolled in Secondary High school in comparison to before

2952-456: The framework of global dynamics. Policies or policy-elements can be designed and proposed by a multitude of actors or collaborating actor-networks in various ways. Alternative options as well as organisations and decision-makers that would be responsible for enacting these policies – or explaining their rejection – can be identified. "Policy sequencing" is a concept that integrates mixes of existing or hypothetical policies and arranges them in

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3024-502: The funding for the policy will be collected and operated. President Nana Afuffo-Addo initially proposed for the system to be primarily funded by the government through re-adjustments of the national financial budget. Such plans was challenged by the IMANI Centre for Policy and Education who are a 'think tank' organization that provide policy research and advice to governments and governmental institutions. The institution believed that

3096-437: The given policy area. Third, the individual or organization can provide a sound account for this support by explaining the evidence and preferences that lay the foundation for the claim. Policies are dynamic; they are not just static lists of goals or laws. Policy blueprints have to be implemented, often with unexpected results. Social policies are what happens 'on the ground' when they are implemented, as well as what happens at

3168-435: The government's plans, which included the time frames their schools would be renovated and their accessibility to freelance funding. Therefore, some improvements that were made could not entirely benefit the regions the system was specifically formed for, as while some still lacked in suitable equipment others had an abundance of it. Its implementation nevertheless has seen the quality of educational resources such as improving

3240-410: The green track session have vacated on the academic calendar. The double track system is an exemplar of the extensions of the policy since its development. The system was introduced to combat the overwhelming number of high school enrollments that were as a result of the publicizing of the policy. The main criticism of the system was how educators and school facility owners were not entirely consulted on

3312-566: The implementation of the policy where admission fees were essential for acceptance has substantially increased. The more people that enrolled in school the better their learning skills and knowledge increased. In the years 2017 and 2018 every student, especially those in the one third of public schools located in rural areas academically benefited from the policy. Students were given free textbooks and other learning materials that would generally be applied to full scholarship recipients. The anticipation for high school students to join career fields in

3384-425: The individual to develop into a societal asset. Policies that prioritise student welfare, encourages young people to be more politically conscious and engaged with political affairs. It has built voter's confidence for a lot of senior high school students and their families where support for political parties are now reliant on recognised party results and not on party philosophies . The non-discriminatory nature of

3456-465: The lack thereof) his schemas were added as supplements in the newly invented technology of printing by Aldus Manutius in his editions of Dante's Divine Comedy dating from early in the 16th century. The poet Dante Alighieri listed the following seven deadly vices , associating them structurally as flaws in the soul's inherent capacity for goodness as made in the Divine Image yet perverted by

3528-417: The law can compel or prohibit behaviors (e.g. a law requiring the payment of taxes on income), policy merely guides actions toward those that are most likely to achieve the desired outcome. Policy or policy study may also refer to the process of making important organizational decisions, including the identification of different alternatives such as programs or spending priorities, and choosing among them on

3600-544: The legal code, the term vice is often used in law enforcement and judicial systems as an umbrella term for crimes involving activities that are considered inherently immoral , regardless of the legality or objective harm involved. In the United Kingdom, the term vice is commonly used in law and law enforcement to refer to criminal offences related to prostitution and pornography . In the United States,

3672-426: The livelihoods of poorer students and their families. Initially, high achieving students in these areas were awarded simply with scholarship and internship opportunities. The policy in its broad accessibility has formed more equitable means of improving the proportion of marginal to inframarginal expenditure in high school educational funding and educational opportunities. In the policy's initial introduction into

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3744-477: The modifications of the ' National Liberation Council ', the 'New Structure and Content of Education of 1974', and the New Educational Reform of 2007 . Although the incentive is accessible for all high school students, the demographic the policy aimed to benefit the greatest were those in rural and disadvantaged communities. The policy has supported other practical governmental contributions to

3816-412: The nation's development, Studies highlighted that students with higher economic capital in comparison to their economically disadvantaged peers are given an abundance of educational opportunities. Promoting free high school education became an argument that it would fuel Ghana's economic growth The Free SHS policy widens the eligibility and success rate of these educational opportunities with an aim for

3888-432: The organization, or to seek some positive benefit. A meta-analysis of policy studies concluded that international treaties that aim to foster global cooperation have mostly failed to produce their intended effects in addressing global challenges , and sometimes may have led to unintended harmful or net negative effects. The study suggests enforcement mechanisms are the "only modifiable treaty design choice" with

3960-570: The organization. Distributive policies involve government allocation of resources, services, or benefits to specific groups or individuals in society. The primary characteristic of distributive policies is that they aim to provide goods or services to a targeted group without significantly reducing the availability or benefits for other groups. These policies are often designed to promote economic or social equity. Examples include subsidies for farmers, social welfare programs, and funding for public education. Regulatory policies aim to control or regulate

4032-462: The periods of creating and modifying the policy. Education as a shared custom between the parties was the focus amongst the socio-economic debates of the policy. An imperative focus between political actors and influencers was created to provide quality as well as quantity in the introduction of education policies in Ghana. The demand for quality education previously became outweighed by political imperatives of political parties. The respective parties in

4104-641: The policy and demonstrate that it is considered in force. Such documents often have standard formats that are particular to the organization issuing the policy. While such formats differ in form, policy documents usually contain certain standard components including: Some policies may contain additional sections, including: The American political scientist Theodore J. Lowi proposed four types of policy, namely distributive , redistributive , regulatory and constituent in his article "Four Systems of Policy, Politics and Choice" and in "American Business, Public Policy, Case Studies and Political Theory". Policy addresses

4176-410: The potential to improve the effectiveness . Corporate purchasing policies provide an example of how organizations attempt to avoid negative effects. Many large companies have policies that all purchases above a certain value must be performed through a purchasing process. By requiring this standard purchasing process through policy, the organization can limit waste and standardize the way purchasing

4248-403: The public (influenced via media and education as well as by cultural identity ), contemporary economics (such as what is beneficial or a burden in the long- and near-term within it) and a general state of international competition (often the focus of geopolitics ). Broadly, considerations include political competition with other parties and social stability as well as national interests within

4320-965: The public sphere, there was disapproval due to a lack of understanding of its nature. Commotion concerning increasing upper-class taxes and adding pressure onto middle class and lower class students to achieve higher than already expected grades. Fears of failures to adequately distribute resources and funds could have posed further risk of disadvantage for students already experiencing difficulties. Free SHS maximised literacy levels increased economic and social developments. It has released parental demands of educational finances to shift to focusing on building their family's resilience and social welfare. The initial negative social response transformed to overwhelming support, especially for its ability to deter adolescents from social vices to make impactful contributions to their local communities. Governmental and non-governmental institutions as well as parliamentary allegiances, had to alleviate political viewpoints in

4392-459: The purchasing of school equipment became secondary needs. The Free SHS policy covers the primary and secondary expenditure that caregivers were burdened to provide despite their economic incapability to do so. Initially most parents would pay for secondary school tuition based on their own ability to understand their child's competency, but are now relieved of the social hindrance of choosing some children over others to be educated. The secretariat

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4464-422: The second. Vices recognized as spiritual by Christians include blasphemy ( holiness betrayed), apostasy ( faith betrayed), despair ( hope betrayed), hatred ( love betrayed), and indifference (scripturally, a "hardened heart"). Christian theologians have reasoned that the most destructive vice equates to a certain type of pride or the complete idolatry of the self. It is argued that through this vice, which

4536-464: The sinner to gain bliss from them, and also so that the sinner is distracted from the love of other things of which God approves. Their love must be cooled to a more sensible level. The Qur'an and many other Islamic religious writings provide prohibitions against acts that are seen as immoral. Ibn abi Dunya , a 9th-century scholar and tutor to the caliphs, described 6 censures (prohibitions against vices) in his writings: < Although not strictly

4608-843: The society. Constituent policies can include symbolic gestures, such as resolutions recognizing historical events or designating official state symbols. Constituent policies also deal with fiscal policy in some circumstances. Redistributive policies involve the transfer of resources or benefits from one group to another, typically from the wealthy or privileged to the less advantaged. These policies seek to reduce economic or social inequality by taking from those with more and providing for those with less. Progressive taxation, welfare programs, and financial assistance to low-income households are examples of redistributive policies. In contemporary systems of market-oriented economics and of homogeneous voting of delegates and decisions , policy mixes are usually introduced depending on factors that include popularity in

4680-656: The state of physical classrooms, reducing classroom congestion, and shortening schooling hours, contribute to the academic and social progression of students. The temporary system was introduced in aim to create an advanced school functioning dynamic in accordance with the SDG target 4. Effects of the COVID-19 Crisis on Free SHS To minimize the spread of the SARS-CoV2 virus, the Ministry of Education (MoE) developed

4752-410: The state that befalls one upon committing a morally wrong act. In this section, the word always means the sinful act. It is the sin, and not the vice, that deprives one of God's sanctifying grace and renders one deserving of God's punishment . Thomas Aquinas taught that "absolutely speaking, the sin surpasses the vice in wickedness". On the other hand, even after a person's sins have been forgiven ,

4824-924: The term is also used to refer to crimes related to drugs , alcohol, and gambling . A vice squad, also called a vice unit or a morality squad , is generally, though not always, a police division, whose focus is to restrain or suppress moral crimes. Though what is considered or accepted as a moral crime by society often varies considerably according to local laws or customs between nations, countries, or states, it often includes activities such as gambling , narcotics , prostitution and pornography . Religious police , for example Islamic religious police units or sharia police in certain Muslim countries, are morality squads that also monitor, for example, dress codes , observance of store-closures during prayer time, consumption of unlawful beverages or foods , unrelated males and females socializing , and homosexual behaviour. In

4896-424: The underlying habit (the vice) may remain. Just as vice was created in the first place by repeatedly yielding to the temptation to sin, so vice may be removed only by repeatedly resisting temptation and performing virtuous acts; the more entrenched the vice, the more time and effort needed to remove it. Saint Thomas Aquinas says that following rehabilitation and the acquisition of virtues, the vice does not persist as

4968-550: The very concept of the stages model has been discredited, which attacks the cycle's status as a heuristic. Due to these problems, alternative and newer versions of the model have aimed to create a more comprehensive view of the policy cycle. An eight step policy cycle is developed in detail in The Australian Policy Handbook by Peter Bridgman and Glyn Davis : (now with Catherine Althaus in its 4th and 5th editions) The Althaus, Bridgman & Davis model

5040-475: Was established by the Government of Ghana to enable the smooth running of the Free SHS program, after calls of its establishment were made by The Ghana National Education Campaign Coalition. Projects being embark by the secretariat includes : Senior High School Intervention Projects (SHSIPs), School Feeding Extensions. The Government spent GH¢212 million from the Annual Budget Funding Amount (ABFA) in

5112-506: Was introduced by the government in order to enable various senior high schools to take in more students and ensure that all students have access to a senior high school education. The Double Track System is in two sessions, thus The Green Track and The Gold Track. The Green Track represents the first batch of students who would go to school for a semester and are later followed by the Gold Track students who would continue after students of

5184-484: Was not entirely lifted as the expenses of school supplies such as books and stationery was the responsibility of parents and guardians. The scarce availability of trained teachers and minimal financing of suitable schooling infrastructure caused the inability of the ADP to withstand as a long lasting program. Further educational developments included the legislation of Universal Primary Education in 'The Education Act of 1961',

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