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63-528: This area is notable for its flora and geology which is protected under an areas of special scientific interest (ASSI) designation, namely the West Fermanagh Scarplands ASSI and West Fermanagh Scarplands Special Area of Conservation (SAC). There are also a number of sites of archaeological significance, which have been recorded since the late 19th century. The Knockmore area is known for its dramatic cliffs. It also gives its name to

126-591: A continuation of the historical management of the land. Where an owner or occupier is unwilling or unable to carry out management, ultimately the conservation body can require it to be done. Public bodies which own or occupy an SSSI have a duty to manage it properly. Site management statements for SSSI in Scotland are available to download from the NatureScot website using the "Sitelink" facility. The law protecting SSSIs now covers everyone, not just public bodies and

189-478: A long way upstream of a wetland SSSI might require consultation. Some developments might be neutral or beneficial, even if they are within the SSSI itself – the critical point is whether they harm the interest features. The owners and occupiers of SSSIs are required (Scotland, England, Wales) to obtain consent from the relevant nature conservation body if they want to carry out, cause or permit to be carried out within

252-487: A low density on a pasture, so as not to overgraze. Controlled burning of the land can help in the regrowth of plants. Although grazing can be problematic for the ecosystem, well-managed grazing techniques can reverse damage and improve the land. On commons in England and Wales, rights of pasture (grassland grazing) and pannage (forest grazing) for each commoner are tightly defined by number and type of animal, and by

315-407: A proposed activity would not affect the interest or is beneficial to it, then the conservation body will issue a "consent" allowing it to be carried out without further consultation. If it would be harmful, the conservation body may issue consent subject to conditions or refuse the application. If consent in writing is not given the operation must not proceed. Conditions may cover any relevant aspect of

378-449: A rotation of fresh grass after burning with two years of rest. Conservation grazing proposes to use grazing animals to improve the biodiversity of a site. Grazing has existed since the beginning of agriculture ; sheep and goats were domesticated by nomads before the first permanent settlements were constructed around 7000 BC, enabling cattle and pigs to be kept. Livestock grazing contributes to many negative effects on

441-546: A short period of time. Conservation grazing is the use of grazing animals to help improve the biodiversity of a site. Due to their hardy nature, rare and native breeds are often used in conservation grazing. In some cases, to re-establish traditional hay meadows, cattle such as the English Longhorn and Highland are used to provide grazing. A form of rotational grazing using as many small paddocks as fencing allows, said to be more sustainable. Mob grazing

504-428: A site may contain strata containing vertebrate fossils, insect fossils and plant fossils and it may also be of importance for stratigraphy . Geological sites fall into two types, having different conservation priorities: exposure sites, and deposit sites. Exposure sites are where quarries , disused railway cuttings, cliffs or outcrops give access to extensive geological features, such as particular rock layers. If

567-425: A standard list for that country. The ORCs/OLDs are not "banned" activities – the list includes activities which would damage the interest, but also many which might be beneficial. For example, " grazing " (a standard item on the list) would require consent, even on a chalk grassland or heathland where grazing is an essential part of management. In England and Wales the list of OLDs is almost the same for each SSSI – and

630-482: A system of checks and balances, and allowing higher plant biodiversity. In Europe heathland is a cultural landscape which requires grazing by cattle, sheep or other grazers to be maintained. An author of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) report Livestock's Long Shadow , stated in an interview: Grazing occupies 26 percent of Earth's terrestrial surface   ... feed crop production requires about

693-552: A third of all arable land   ... Expansion of grazing land for livestock is also a leading cause of deforestation, especially in Latin America... In the Amazon basin alone, about 70 percent of previously forested land is used as pasture, while feed crops cover a large part of the remainder. Much grazing land has resulted from a process of clearance or drainage of other habitats such as woodland or wetland . According to

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756-496: A type of limestone described as Knockmore Limestone which contains a number of caves. The flora and fauna in this area are largely as a result of the underlying limestone and sandstone geology, consisting of upland heath mixed with calcareous grassland . The area is especially noted for the appearance of Irish eyebright ( Euphrasia salisburgensis ), which is considered a priority species in Northern Ireland. There

819-485: A young couple ostracised by their families, the cave was discovered by Wakeman (1870) to contain further inscriptions of ancient celtic origin. 54°24′07″N 7°51′50″W  /  54.402°N 7.864°W  / 54.402; -7.864 Area of Special Scientific Interest A site of special scientific interest ( SSSI ) in Great Britain , or an area of special scientific interest ( ASSI ) in

882-468: Is a mention in old tales of a castle belonging to the Flannagan Clan which was located on Knockmore. The summit of Knockmore contains at least 15 small caves which have been the subject of archeological visits since the late 19th century. The most significant of these is "Lettered Cave" (or Inscribed Cave), situated 50 m from Knockmore summit, which is partially man-made. The cave is named for

945-492: Is a system, said to be more sustainable, invented in 2002; it uses very large herds on land left fallow longer than usual. Many ecological effects derive from grazing, which may be positive or negative. Negative effects of grazing may include overgrazing , increased soil erosion , compaction and degradation, deforestation , biodiversity loss , and adverse water quality impacts from run-off . Sometimes grazers can have beneficial environmental effects such as improving

1008-648: Is allowed access to the same grazing area throughout the year. Seasonal grazing incorporates "grazing animals on a particular area for only part of the year". This allows the land that is not being grazed to rest and allow for new forage to grow. Rotational grazing "involves dividing the range into several pastures and then grazing each in sequence throughout the grazing period". Utilizing rotational grazing can improve livestock distribution while incorporating rest period for new forage. In ley farming, pastures are not permanently planted, but alternated between fodder crops and arable crops. Rest rotation grazing "divides

1071-516: Is governed by published SSSI Selection Guidelines. Within each area, a representative series of the best examples of each significant natural habitat may be notified, and for rarer habitats all examples may be included. Sites of particular significance for various taxonomic groups may be selected (for example birds, dragonflies , butterflies , reptiles, amphibians , etc.)—each of these groups has its own set of selection guidelines. Conservation of biological SSSI/ASSIs usually involves continuation of

1134-420: Is not necessarily absolute—generally it requires the SSSI interest to be considered properly against other factors. Local planning authorities are required to have policies in their development plans which protect SSSIs. They are then required to consult the appropriate conservation body over planning applications which might affect the interest of an SSSI (such a development might not be within or even close to

1197-441: Is often pronounced "triple-S I". Sites notified for their biological interest are known as Biological SSSIs (or ASSIs), and those notified for geological or physiographic interest are Geological SSSIs (or ASSIs). Sites may be divided into management units, with some areas including units that are noted for both biological and geological interest. Biological SSSI/ASSIs may be selected for various reasons, which for Great Britain

1260-640: Is paid each year for each animal 'turned out'. However, if excessive use was made of the common, for example, in overgrazing, a common would be 'stinted'; that is, a limit would be put on the number of animals each commoner was allowed to graze. These regulations were responsive to demographic and economic pressure. Thus, rather than let a common become degraded, access was restricted even further. Ranchers and range science researchers have developed grazing systems to improve sustainable forage production for livestock. These can be contrasted with intensive animal farming on feedlots. With continuous grazing, livestock

1323-552: Is the major cause of degraded riparian habitat on federal rangelands". A 2013 FAO report estimated livestock were responsible for 14.5% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions . Grazing is common in New Zealand ; in 2004, methane and nitrous oxide from agriculture made up somewhat less than half of New Zealand's greenhouse gas emissions, of which most is attributable to livestock . A 2008 United States Environmental Protection Agency report on emissions found agriculture

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1386-416: Is unsuitable for arable farming . Farmers may employ many different strategies of grazing for optimum production : grazing may be continuous, seasonal, or rotational within a grazing period. Longer rotations are found in ley farming , alternating arable and fodder crops; in rest rotation, deferred rotation, and mob grazing, giving grasses a longer time to recover or leaving land fallow. Patch-burn sets up

1449-571: The Civil War . The Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 was enacted after the Great Depression to regulate the use of public land for grazing purposes. According to a report by the Food and Agriculture Organization , about 60% of the world's grassland (just less than half of the world's usable surface) is covered by grazing systems. It states that "Grazing systems supply about 9 percent of the world's production of beef and about 30 percent of

1512-658: The Isle of Man and Northern Ireland , is a conservation designation denoting a protected area in the United Kingdom and Isle of Man . SSSI/ASSIs are the basic building block of site-based nature conservation legislation and most other legal nature/geological conservation designations in the United Kingdom are based upon them, including national nature reserves , Ramsar sites , Special Protection Areas , and Special Areas of Conservation . The acronym "SSSI"

1575-453: The Marine and Coastal Access Act 2010 ). Access to SSSIs is the same as for the rest of the countryside of the relevant country. Most SSSIs/ASSIs are in private ownership and form parts of working farms, forests and estates. In Scotland, people may use their rights of responsible access to visit SSSIs. When designating an SSSI/ASSI, the relevant nature conservation body must formally notify

1638-861: The National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 , but the current legal framework for SSSIs is provided in England and Wales by the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 , amended in 1985 and further substantially amended in 2000 (by the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 ), in Scotland by the Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 2004 and in Northern Ireland by the Nature Conservation and Amenity Lands (Northern Ireland) Order 1985 . SSSIs are also covered under

1701-570: The Water Resources Act 1991 and related legislation. An SSSI may be made on any area of land which is considered to be of special interest by virtue of its fauna , flora , geological or physiographical / geomorphological features. SSSI notification can cover any "land" within the area of the relevant nature conservation body, including dry land, land covered by fresh water . The extent to which an SSSI/ASSI may extend seawards differs between countries. In Scotland an SSSI may include

1764-563: The ORC lists for each SSSI and removed those activities that were unlikely to happen and if they were to would be unlikely to damage the protected natural features, and other activities adequately regulated by other statutory regimes. The intention of this was to remove the need for owners and occupiers to obtain SSSI consent as well as licences/ permits from other authorities (who must consult NatureScot prior to determining such applications). Purely geological SSSIs often have much shorter OLD lists. If

1827-607: The SSSI Register, hosted by The Registers of Scotland . Further information about SSSIs in Scotland is available on the NatureScot website. The decision to notify an SSSI is made by the relevant nature conservation body (the appropriate conservation body ) for that part of the United Kingdom: Northern Ireland Environment Agency , Natural England , NatureScot or Natural Resources Wales . SSSIs were originally set up by

1890-414: The SSSI any of the activities listed in the notification. Formerly these activities were called 'potentially damaging operations' or PDOs. Under the current legal arrangements they are called 'operations requiring consent' or ORCs (Scotland), or 'operations likely to damage the SSSI interest' or OLDs (England & Wales). The list of ORCs/OLDs for each SSSI is unique to that site – though all are derived from

1953-402: The SSSI itself). The effect of this is to prevent development which harms the interest – except where the value of that interest is over-ridden by some more important factor, for example a requirement for a major road or port or oil pipe. The requirement for consultation covers any development which might affect the interest, not just developments within the SSSI itself – for example, a development

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2016-457: The accumulation of litter ( organic matter ) in some seasons and areas, but can also increase it, which may help to combat soil erosion . This acts as nutrition for insects and organisms found within the soil. These organisms "aid in carbon sequestration and water filtration". When grass is grazed, dead grass and litter are reduced which is advantageous for birds such as waterfowl . Grazing can increase biodiversity . Without grazing, many of

2079-451: The art and writing of varying age inscribed on the walls, ranging from early celtic and Christian designs to simple marking of names and dates. It was investigated by William Wakeman (1866–70) and Thomas Plunkett (1870, 1878 and 1898) and is now a scheduled ancient monument. Among the other caves studied on Knockmore is Gillie's Hole, located part-way up the southern cliff face of the summit. Named for its 18th-century occupants, reportedly

2142-401: The bison–fire relationship on a large landscape scale of 30,000 acres (12,000 ha). In the grazed heathland of Devon , the periodic burning is known as swailing. Riparian area grazing is intended to improve wildlife and their habitats. It uses fencing to keep livestock off ranges near streams or water areas until after wildlife or waterfowl periods, or to limit the amount of grazing to

2205-867: The designating authority is NatureScot ; the role in Wales is performed by Natural Resources Wales (formerly the Countryside Council for Wales ). In the Isle of Man the role is performed by the Department of Environment, Food and Agriculture . Geological SSSI/ASSIs are selected by a different mechanism to biological ones, with a minimalistic system selecting one site for each geological feature in Great Britain. Academic geological specialists have reviewed geological literature, selecting sites within Great Britain of at least national importance for each of

2268-594: The environment, including deforestation , extinction of native wildlife, pollution of streams and rivers, overgrazing , soil degradation , ecological disturbance , desertification , and ecosystem stability . Sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs were domesticated early in the history of agriculture . Sheep were domesticated first, soon followed by goats; both species were suitable for nomadic peoples. Cattle and pigs were domesticated somewhat later, around 7000 BC, once people started to live in fixed settlements. In America, livestock were grazed on public land from

2331-461: The exposure becomes obscured, the feature could in principle be re-exposed elsewhere. Conservation of these sites usually concentrates on maintenance of access for future study. Deposit sites are features which are limited in extent or physically delicate—for example, they include small lenses of sediment , mine tailings , caves and other landforms . If such features become damaged they cannot be recreated, and conservation usually involves protecting

2394-507: The feature from erosion or other damage. Following devolution, legal arrangements for SSSIs (Scotland, England, Wales) and ASSIs (Northern Ireland) differ between the countries of the UK. The Isle of Man ASSI system is a separate entity. NatureScot publishes a summary of the SSSI arrangements for SSSI owners and occupiers (other than public bodies) which can be downloaded from its website. Legal documents for all SSSIs in Scotland are available on

2457-487: The heavy grazing. This technique results in a diversity of habitats that different prairie plants and birds can utilize—mimicking the effects of the pre-historical relationship between bison and fire, whereby bison heavily graze one area and other areas have opportunity to rest, based on the concept of pyric herbivory . The Tallgrass Prairie Preserve in northeastern Oklahoma has been patch-burn grazed with bison herds for over ten years. These efforts have effectively restored

2520-405: The interest), but not illegal trail biking. This loophole was closed by the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 and section 19 of the Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 2004. Funding for the monitoring of SSSIs in England has been cut from £1.58 million in 2010 to £700,000 in 2018, causing concern that many have not been inspected over the last six years, as required by guidelines. Since

2583-473: The interested parties and allow a period for them to make representations before confirming the notification. When creating a new SSSI/ASSI the designation has legal effect from the date of notification. The interested parties include central government, local planning authorities , national park authorities, all the owners and occupiers of the land, relevant public bodies such as the utility providers e.g., water companies . In Scotland, NatureScot must also notify

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2646-469: The intertidal land down to mean low water spring or to the extent of the local planning authority area, thus only limited areas of estuaries and coastal waters beyond MLWS may be included. In England, Natural England may notify an SSSI over estuarial waters and further adjacent waters in certain circumstances (section 28(1A & 1B) of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 as amended by Part 2 of Annex 13 of

2709-402: The list for an SSSI will only omit activities impossible on the particular SSSI (such as fishing where there is no water), and things requiring planning permission (which are covered by the local planning authority consultation process). In Scotland, and following the implementation of the Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 2004, Scottish Natural Heritage (the former name for NatureScot) reviewed

2772-531: The most important features within each geological topic (or block ). Each of these sites is described, with most published in the Geological Conservation Review series, and so becomes a GCR site . Almost all GCR sites (but no other sites) are subsequently notified as geological SSSIs, except some that coincide with designated biological SSSI management units. A GCR site may contain features from several different topic blocks, for example

2835-400: The natural and artificial processes which resulted in their development and survival, for example the continued traditional grazing of heathland or chalk grassland . In England, the designating body for SSSIs, Natural England , selects biological SSSIs from within natural areas which are areas with particular landscape and ecological characteristics, or on a county basis. In Scotland,

2898-1003: The new Act, often with boundary changes. This complex process took some ten years to complete for the several thousand SSSIs. For the purposes of selecting the original tranche of SSSIs, Natural England's predecessors (the Nature Conservancy, the Nature Conservancy Council and English Nature ) used a system termed "areas of search" (AOSs). In England these were largely based on the 1974–1996 administrative counties (with larger counties divided into two or more areas), whereas in Scotland and Wales they are based around districts. The individual AOSs are between 400 km (150 sq mi) and 4,000 km (1,500 sq mi) in size. There were 59 AOSs in England, 12 in Wales, and 44 in Scotland. Watsonian vice-counties were formerly used for selection over

2961-399: The notification is then confirmed or withdrawn (in whole or part). At the time of the passing of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 , many SSSIs were already in existence, having been notified over the previous decades under the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 . Each of these was considered in turn, and either denotified, or renotified —brought under the provisions of

3024-644: The opinion of the Center for Biological Diversity , extensive grazing of livestock in the arid lands of the southwestern United States has many negative impacts on the local biodiversity there. Cattle destroy native vegetation, damage soils and stream banks, and contaminate waterways with fecal waste. After decades of livestock grazing, once-lush streams and riparian forests have been reduced to flat, dry wastelands; once-rich topsoil has been turned to dust, causing soil erosion, stream sedimentation and wholesale elimination of some aquatic habitats In arid climates such as

3087-447: The owners and occupiers of SSSIs. Previously, activities by "third parties" were not illegal under the SSSI legislation. This meant that damaging activities such as fly-tipping , intensive bait-digging or trail biking on an SSSI were only prevented if done (or permitted) by the owner or occupier – not if done by trespassers or under public rights. The effect was, for example, to allow control of legal trail biking on SSSIs (where damaging to

3150-478: The period when no grazing occurs. Patch-burn grazing burns a third of a pasture each year, no matter the size of the pasture. This burned patch attracts grazers (cattle or bison ) that graze the area heavily because of the fresh grasses that grow as a result. The other patches receive little to no grazing. During the next two years the next two patches are burned consecutively, then the cycle begins anew. In this way, patches receive two years of rest and recovery from

3213-517: The proposed operation and may, for example, limit its timing, location or intensity. The process is slightly different where the owner or occupier is a public body, but the effect is broadly similar. The relevant nature conservation body sends all SSSI owners and occupiers a site-specific 'site management statement' describing the ideal management (there may be grants available to help fund management). Owners and occupiers are encouraged to carry out this management, which in many (but not all) cases will be

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3276-424: The range into at least four pastures. One pasture remains rested throughout the year and grazing is rotated amongst the residual pastures." This grazing system can be especially beneficial when using sensitive grass that requires time for rest and regrowth. Deferred rotation "involves at least two pastures with one not grazed until after seed-set". By using deferred rotation, grasses can achieve maximum growth during

3339-572: The referendum to leave the EU in 2016, more than 450 staff have been transferred to the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra). Neglected areas include Exmoor , the Lake District , the Pennines , and The Wash . The process of designating a site as of Special Scientific Interest is called notification; this is followed by consultation with the site's owners and occupiers, and

3402-565: The relevant community councils and community group having registered an interest in the land. The notification includes a description of the land and the natural features for which it is notified ("the citation"), a boundary map, and a list of the acts or omissions (activities) that the nature conservation body regulates through the issue of consents. The various laws protect the interest features of SSSIs from development, from other damage, and (since 2000 in England) also from neglect. Protection

3465-422: The removal of wild grazing animals), or by other human disturbance. Conservation grazing is the use of grazers to manage such habitats, often to replicate the ecological effects of the wild relatives of domestic livestock , or those of other species now absent or extinct. Grazer urine and faeces "recycle nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other plant nutrients and return them to the soil". Grazing can reduce

3528-415: The same grasses grow, for example brome and bluegrass , consequently producing a monoculture . The ecosystems of North American tallgrass prairies are controlled to a large extent by nitrogen availability, which is itself controlled by interactions between fires and grazing by large herbivores. Fires in spring enhance growth of certain grasses, and herbivores preferentially graze these grasses, producing

3591-402: The soil with nutrient redistribution and aerating the soil by trampling, and by controlling fire and increasing biodiversity by removing biomass, controlling shrub growth and dispersing seeds. In some habitats, appropriate levels of grazing may be effective in restoring or maintaining native grass and herb diversity in rangeland that has been disturbed by overgrazing, lack of grazing (such as by

3654-621: The southwestern United States, livestock grazing has severely degraded riparian areas , the wetland environment adjacent to rivers or streams. The Environmental Protection Agency states that agriculture has a greater impact on stream and river contamination than any other nonpoint source . Improper grazing of riparian areas can contribute to nonpoint source pollution of riparian areas. Riparian zones in arid and semiarid environments have been called biodiversity hotspots . The water, higher biomass , favorable microclimate and periodic flood events together produce higher biological diversity than in

3717-709: The surrounding uplands. In 1990, "according to the Arizona state park department, over 90% of the original riparian zones of Arizona and New Mexico are gone". A 1988 report of the Government Accountability Office estimated that 90% of the 5,300 miles of riparian habitat managed by the Bureau of Land Management in Colorado was in an unsatisfactory condition, as was 80% of Idaho 's riparian zones, concluding that "poorly managed livestock grazing

3780-470: The time of year when certain rights can be exercised. For example, the occupier of a particular cottage might be allowed to graze fifteen cattle, four horses , ponies or donkeys , and fifty geese , while the numbers allowed for their neighbours would probably be different. On some commons (such as the New Forest and adjoining commons), the rights are not limited by numbers, and instead a 'marking fee'

3843-408: The whole of Great Britain. Grazing In agriculture , grazing is a method of animal husbandry whereby domestic livestock are allowed outdoors to free range (roam around) and consume wild vegetations in order to convert the otherwise indigestible (by human gut ) cellulose within grass and other forages into meat , milk , wool and other animal products , often on land that

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3906-406: The world's production of sheep and goat meat . For an estimated 100 million people in arid areas , and probably a similar number in other zones, grazing livestock is the only possible source of livelihood." Grazing management has two overall goals: A proper land use and grazing management technique balances It does this by allowing sufficient recovery periods for regrowth. Producers can keep

3969-464: Was responsible for 6% of total United States greenhouse gas emissions in 2006. This included rice production, enteric fermentation in domestic livestock, livestock manure management, and agricultural soil management , but omitted some things that might be attributable to agriculture. Studies comparing the methane emissions from grazing and feedlot cattle concluded that grass-fed cattle produce much more methane than grain-fed cattle. One study in

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