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80-519: It was along the Koyva that the first ever diamonds were found in 1829 in Russia. There are urban-type settlement Tyoplaya Gora situated by the river. Main tributaries: Name of river is a composition of Komi-Permyak words ‘ koy ’ (splash) and ‘ va ’ (water). This Perm Krai location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to a river in Russia

160-402: A subduction zone . Compressibility In thermodynamics and fluid mechanics , the compressibility (also known as the coefficient of compressibility or, if the temperature is held constant, the isothermal compressibility ) is a measure of the instantaneous relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a response to a pressure (or mean stress ) change. In its simple form,

240-491: A Christie's auction. In May 2009, a 7.03-carat (1.406 g) blue diamond fetched the highest price per carat ever paid for a diamond when it was sold at auction for 10.5 million Swiss francs (6.97 million euros, or US$ 9.5 million at the time). That record was, however, beaten the same year: a 5-carat (1.0 g) vivid pink diamond was sold for US$ 10.8 million in Hong Kong on December 1, 2009. Clarity

320-453: A cigarette lighter, but house fires and blow torches are hot enough. Jewelers must be careful when molding the metal in a diamond ring. Diamond powder of an appropriate grain size (around 50   microns) burns with a shower of sparks after ignition from a flame. Consequently, pyrotechnic compositions based on synthetic diamond powder can be prepared. The resulting sparks are of the usual red-orange color, comparable to charcoal, but show

400-727: A continuum with carbonatites , but the latter have too much oxygen for carbon to exist in a pure form. Instead, it is locked up in the mineral calcite ( Ca C O 3 ). All three of the diamond-bearing rocks (kimberlite, lamproite and lamprophyre) lack certain minerals ( melilite and kalsilite ) that are incompatible with diamond formation. In kimberlite , olivine is large and conspicuous, while lamproite has Ti- phlogopite and lamprophyre has biotite and amphibole . They are all derived from magma types that erupt rapidly from small amounts of melt, are rich in volatiles and magnesium oxide , and are less oxidizing than more common mantle melts such as basalt . These characteristics allow

480-452: A diamond to fluoresce. Diamonds can fluoresce in a variety of colors including blue (most common), orange, yellow, white, green and very rarely red and purple. Although the causes are not well understood, variations in the atomic structure, such as the number of nitrogen atoms present are thought to contribute to the phenomenon. Diamonds can be identified by their high thermal conductivity (900– 2320 W·m ·K ). Their high refractive index

560-408: A fluid has strong implications for its dynamics. Most notably, the propagation of sound is dependent on the compressibility of the medium. Compressibility is an important factor in aerodynamics . At low speeds, the compressibility of air is not significant in relation to aircraft design, but as the airflow nears and exceeds the speed of sound , a host of new aerodynamic effects become important in

640-480: A gemstone. Because it can only be scratched by other diamonds, it maintains its polish extremely well. Unlike many other gems, it is well-suited to daily wear because of its resistance to scratching—perhaps contributing to its popularity as the preferred gem in engagement or wedding rings , which are often worn every day. The hardest natural diamonds mostly originate from the Copeton and Bingara fields located in

720-420: A great deal of energy in a reversible process and this greatly reduces the thermodynamic temperature of hypersonic gas decelerated near the aerospace object. Ions or free radicals transported to the object surface by diffusion may release this extra (nonthermal) energy if the surface catalyzes the slower recombination process. For ordinary materials, the bulk compressibility (sum of the linear compressibilities on

800-475: A metallic fluid. The extreme conditions required for this to occur are present in the ice giants Neptune and Uranus . Both planets are made up of approximately 10 percent carbon and could hypothetically contain oceans of liquid carbon. Since large quantities of metallic fluid can affect the magnetic field, this could serve as an explanation as to why the geographic and magnetic poles of the two planets are unaligned. The most common crystal structure of diamond

880-403: A pale blue flame, and continues to burn after the source of heat is removed. By contrast, in air the combustion will cease as soon as the heat is removed because the oxygen is diluted with nitrogen. A clear, flawless, transparent diamond is completely converted to carbon dioxide; any impurities will be left as ash. Heat generated from cutting a diamond will not ignite the diamond, and neither will

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960-465: A real gas. The deviation from ideal gas behavior tends to become particularly significant (or, equivalently, the compressibility factor strays far from unity) near the critical point , or in the case of high pressure or low temperature. In these cases, a generalized compressibility chart or an alternative equation of state better suited to the problem must be utilized to produce accurate results. The Earth sciences use compressibility to quantify

1040-554: A relatively high optical dispersion . Most natural diamonds have ages between 1 billion and 3.5 billion years. Most were formed at depths between 150 and 250 kilometres (93 and 155 mi) in the Earth's mantle , although a few have come from as deep as 800 kilometres (500 mi). Under high pressure and temperature, carbon-containing fluids dissolved various minerals and replaced them with diamonds. Much more recently (hundreds to tens of million years ago), they were carried to

1120-532: A result of the changes in airflow from an incompressible fluid (similar in effect to water) to a compressible fluid (acting as a gas) as the speed of sound is approached. There are two effects in particular, wave drag and critical mach . One complication occurs in hypersonic aerodynamics, where dissociation causes an increase in the "notional" molar volume because a mole of oxygen, as O 2 , becomes 2 moles of monatomic oxygen and N 2 similarly dissociates to 2 N. Since this occurs dynamically as air flows over

1200-463: A transition between graphite and diamond are well established theoretically and experimentally. The equilibrium pressure varies linearly with temperature, between 1.7  GPa at 0 K and 12 GPa at 5000 K (the diamond/graphite/liquid triple point ). However, the phases have a wide region about this line where they can coexist. At standard temperature and pressure , 20 °C (293 K) and 1 standard atmosphere (0.10 MPa),

1280-467: A very linear trajectory which is explained by their high density. Diamond also reacts with fluorine gas above about 700 °C (1,292 °F). Diamond has a wide band gap of 5.5  eV corresponding to the deep ultraviolet wavelength of 225   nanometers. This means that pure diamond should transmit visible light and appear as a clear colorless crystal. Colors in diamond originate from lattice defects and impurities. The diamond crystal lattice

1360-425: A volcanic rock. There are many theories for its origin, including formation in a star, but no consensus. Diamond is the hardest material on the qualitative Mohs scale . To conduct the quantitative Vickers hardness test , samples of materials are struck with a pyramid of standardized dimensions using a known force – a diamond crystal is used for the pyramid to permit a wide range of materials to be tested. From

1440-449: Is 0.01% for nickel and even less for cobalt. Virtually any element can be introduced to diamond by ion implantation. Nitrogen is by far the most common impurity found in gem diamonds and is responsible for the yellow and brown color in diamonds. Boron is responsible for the blue color. Color in diamond has two additional sources: irradiation (usually by alpha particles), that causes the color in green diamonds, and plastic deformation of

1520-407: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Diamond Diamond is a solid form of the element carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal structure called diamond cubic . Diamond as a form of carbon is a tasteless, odourless, strong, brittle solid, colourless in pure form, a poor conductor of electricity, and insoluble in water. Another solid form of carbon known as graphite

1600-415: Is a solid form of pure carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal. Solid carbon comes in different forms known as allotropes depending on the type of chemical bond. The two most common allotropes of pure carbon are diamond and graphite . In graphite, the bonds are sp orbital hybrids and the atoms form in planes, with each bound to three nearest neighbors, 120 degrees apart. In diamond, they are sp and

1680-420: Is aided by isotopic dating and modeling of the geological history. Then surveyors must go to the area and collect samples, looking for kimberlite fragments or indicator minerals . The latter have compositions that reflect the conditions where diamonds form, such as extreme melt depletion or high pressures in eclogites . However, indicator minerals can be misleading; a better approach is geothermobarometry , where

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1760-728: Is also indicative, but other materials have similar refractivity. Diamonds are extremely rare, with concentrations of at most parts per billion in source rock. Before the 20th century, most diamonds were found in alluvial deposits . Loose diamonds are also found along existing and ancient shorelines , where they tend to accumulate because of their size and density. Rarely, they have been found in glacial till (notably in Wisconsin and Indiana ), but these deposits are not of commercial quality. These types of deposit were derived from localized igneous intrusions through weathering and transport by wind or water . Most diamonds come from

1840-405: Is another mechanical property toughness , which is a material's ability to resist breakage from forceful impact. The toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 50–65  MPa ·m . This value is good compared to other ceramic materials, but poor compared to most engineering materials such as engineering alloys, which typically exhibit toughness over 80   MPa·m . As with any material,

1920-414: Is called diamond cubic . It is formed of unit cells (see the figure) stacked together. Although there are 18 atoms in the figure, each corner atom is shared by eight unit cells and each atom in the center of a face is shared by two, so there are a total of eight atoms per unit cell. The length of each side of the unit cell is denoted by a and is 3.567  angstroms . The nearest neighbor distance in

2000-415: Is called the isothermal bulk modulus . The specification above is incomplete, because for any object or system the magnitude of the compressibility depends strongly on whether the process is isentropic or isothermal . Accordingly, isothermal compressibility is defined: where the subscript T indicates that the partial differential is to be taken at constant temperature. Isentropic compressibility

2080-405: Is defined as where p is the pressure of the gas, T is its temperature , and V m {\displaystyle V_{m}} is its molar volume , all measured independently of one another. In the case of an ideal gas, the compressibility factor Z is equal to unity, and the familiar ideal gas law is recovered: Z can, in general, be either greater or less than unity for

2160-476: Is defined: where S is entropy. For a solid, the distinction between the two is usually negligible. Since the density ρ of a material is inversely proportional to its volume, it can be shown that in both cases For instance, for an ideal gas , Consequently, the isothermal compressibility of an ideal gas is The ideal gas (where the particles do not interact with each other) is an abstraction. The particles in real materials interact with each other. Then,

2240-402: Is exceptionally strong, and only atoms of nitrogen , boron , and hydrogen can be introduced into diamond during the growth at significant concentrations (up to atomic percents). Transition metals nickel and cobalt , which are commonly used for growth of synthetic diamond by high-pressure high-temperature techniques, have been detected in diamond as individual atoms; the maximum concentration

2320-419: Is formed of layers stacked in a repeating ABCABC ... pattern. Diamonds can also form an ABAB ... structure, which is known as hexagonal diamond or lonsdaleite , but this is far less common and is formed under different conditions from cubic carbon. Diamonds occur most often as euhedral or rounded octahedra and twinned octahedra known as macles . As diamond's crystal structure has a cubic arrangement of

2400-412: Is higher for flawless, pure crystals oriented to the <111> direction (along the longest diagonal of the cubic diamond lattice). Therefore, whereas it might be possible to scratch some diamonds with other materials, such as boron nitride , the hardest diamonds can only be scratched by other diamonds and nanocrystalline diamond aggregates . The hardness of diamond contributes to its suitability as

2480-404: Is hybrid rock with a chaotic mixture of small minerals and rock fragments ( clasts ) up to the size of watermelons. They are a mixture of xenocrysts and xenoliths (minerals and rocks carried up from the lower crust and mantle), pieces of surface rock, altered minerals such as serpentine , and new minerals that crystallized during the eruption. The texture varies with depth. The composition forms

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2560-647: Is in the form of micro/nanoscale wires or needles (~100–300   nanometers in diameter, micrometers long), they can be elastically stretched by as much as 9–10 percent tensile strain without failure, with a maximum local tensile stress of about 89–98 GPa , very close to the theoretical limit for this material. Other specialized applications also exist or are being developed, including use as semiconductors : some blue diamonds are natural semiconductors, in contrast to most diamonds, which are excellent electrical insulators . The conductivity and blue color originate from boron impurity. Boron substitutes for carbon atoms in

2640-418: Is incomplete, both beta (the volume/pressure differential ratio) and the differential, constant pressure heat capacity greatly increases. For moderate pressures, above 10,000 K the gas further dissociates into free electrons and ions. Z for the resulting plasma can similarly be computed for a mole of initial air, producing values between 2 and 4 for partially or singly ionized gas. Each dissociation absorbs

2720-477: Is one of the 4C's (color, clarity, cut and carat weight) that helps in identifying the quality of diamonds. The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) developed 11 clarity scales to decide the quality of a diamond for its sale value. The GIA clarity scale spans from Flawless (FL) to included (I) having internally flawless (IF), very, very slightly included (VVS), very slightly included (VS) and slightly included (SI) in between. Impurities in natural diamonds are due to

2800-797: Is partially oxidized. The oxidized surface can be reduced by heat treatment under hydrogen flow. That is to say, this heat treatment partially removes oxygen-containing functional groups. But diamonds (sp C) are unstable against high temperature (above about 400 °C (752 °F)) under atmospheric pressure. The structure gradually changes into sp C above this temperature. Thus, diamonds should be reduced below this temperature. At room temperature, diamonds do not react with any chemical reagents including strong acids and bases. In an atmosphere of pure oxygen, diamond has an ignition point that ranges from 690 °C (1,274 °F) to 840 °C (1,540 °F); smaller crystals tend to burn more easily. It increases in temperature from red to white heat and burns with

2880-769: Is possible to treat regular diamonds under a combination of high pressure and high temperature to produce diamonds that are harder than the diamonds used in hardness gauges. Diamonds cut glass, but this does not positively identify a diamond because other materials, such as quartz, also lie above glass on the Mohs scale and can also cut it. Diamonds can scratch other diamonds, but this can result in damage to one or both stones. Hardness tests are infrequently used in practical gemology because of their potentially destructive nature. The extreme hardness and high value of diamond means that gems are typically polished slowly, using painstaking traditional techniques and greater attention to detail than

2960-452: Is the chemically stable form of carbon at room temperature and pressure , but diamond is metastable and converts to it at a negligible rate under those conditions. Diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any natural material, properties that are used in major industrial applications such as cutting and polishing tools. They are also the reason that diamond anvil cells can subject materials to pressures found deep in

3040-454: Is the case with most other gemstones; these tend to result in extremely flat, highly polished facets with exceptionally sharp facet edges. Diamonds also possess an extremely high refractive index and fairly high dispersion. Taken together, these factors affect the overall appearance of a polished diamond and most diamantaires still rely upon skilled use of a loupe (magnifying glass) to identify diamonds "by eye". Somewhat related to hardness

3120-686: The Earth's mantle , and most of this section discusses those diamonds. However, there are other sources. Some blocks of the crust, or terranes , have been buried deep enough as the crust thickened so they experienced ultra-high-pressure metamorphism . These have evenly distributed microdiamonds that show no sign of transport by magma. In addition, when meteorites strike the ground, the shock wave can produce high enough temperatures and pressures for microdiamonds and nanodiamonds to form. Impact-type microdiamonds can be used as an indicator of ancient impact craters. Popigai impact structure in Russia may have

3200-566: The New England area in New South Wales , Australia. These diamonds are generally small, perfect to semiperfect octahedra, and are used to polish other diamonds. Their hardness is associated with the crystal growth form, which is single-stage crystal growth. Most other diamonds show more evidence of multiple growth stages, which produce inclusions, flaws, and defect planes in the crystal lattice, all of which affect their hardness. It

3280-559: The Wawa belt of the Superior province in Canada and microdiamonds in the island arc of Japan are found in a type of rock called lamprophyre . Kimberlites can be found in narrow (1 to 4 meters) dikes and sills, and in pipes with diameters that range from about 75 m to 1.5 km. Fresh rock is dark bluish green to greenish gray, but after exposure rapidly turns brown and crumbles. It

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3360-456: The isentropic (or adiabatic ) compressibility by a few relations: where γ is the heat capacity ratio , α is the volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion , ρ = N / V is the particle density, and Λ = ( ∂ P / ∂ T ) V {\displaystyle \Lambda =(\partial P/\partial T)_{V}} is the thermal pressure coefficient . In an extensive thermodynamic system,

3440-436: The lithosphere . Such depths occur below cratons in mantle keels , the thickest part of the lithosphere. These regions have high enough pressure and temperature to allow diamonds to form and they are not convecting, so diamonds can be stored for billions of years until a kimberlite eruption samples them. Host rocks in a mantle keel include harzburgite and lherzolite , two type of peridotite . The most dominant rock type in

3520-536: The normal color range , and applies a grading scale from "D" (colorless) to "Z" (light yellow). Yellow diamonds of high color saturation or a different color, such as pink or blue, are called fancy colored diamonds and fall under a different grading scale. In 2008, the Wittelsbach Diamond , a 35.56-carat (7.112 g) blue diamond once belonging to the King of Spain, fetched over US$ 24 million at

3600-402: The upper mantle , peridotite is an igneous rock consisting mostly of the minerals olivine and pyroxene ; it is low in silica and high in magnesium . However, diamonds in peridotite rarely survive the trip to the surface. Another common source that does keep diamonds intact is eclogite , a metamorphic rock that typically forms from basalt as an oceanic plate plunges into the mantle at

3680-424: The Earth. Because the arrangement of atoms in diamond is extremely rigid, few types of impurity can contaminate it (two exceptions are boron and nitrogen ). Small numbers of defects or impurities (about one per million of lattice atoms) can color a diamond blue (boron), yellow (nitrogen), brown (defects), green (radiation exposure), purple, pink, orange, or red. Diamond also has a very high refractive index and

3760-409: The ability of a soil or rock to reduce in volume under applied pressure. This concept is important for specific storage , when estimating groundwater reserves in confined aquifers . Geologic materials are made up of two portions: solids and voids (or same as porosity ). The void space can be full of liquid or gas. Geologic materials reduce in volume only when the void spaces are reduced, which expel

3840-436: The aerospace object, it is convenient to alter the compressibility factor Z , defined for an initial 30 gram moles of air, rather than track the varying mean molecular weight, millisecond by millisecond. This pressure dependent transition occurs for atmospheric oxygen in the 2,500–4,000 K temperature range, and in the 5,000–10,000 K range for nitrogen. In transition regions, where this pressure dependent dissociation

3920-407: The application of statistical mechanics shows that the isothermal compressibility is also related to the relative size of fluctuations in particle density: where μ is the chemical potential . The term "compressibility" is also used in thermodynamics to describe deviations of the thermodynamic properties of a real gas from those expected from an ideal gas . The compressibility factor

4000-462: The atoms form tetrahedra, with each bound to four nearest neighbors. Tetrahedra are rigid, the bonds are strong, and, of all known substances, diamond has the greatest number of atoms per unit volume, which is why it is both the hardest and the least compressible . It also has a high density, ranging from 3150 to 3530 kilograms per cubic metre (over three times the density of water) in natural diamonds and 3520 kg/m in pure diamond. In graphite,

4080-420: The atoms, they have many facets that belong to a cube , octahedron, rhombicosidodecahedron , tetrakis hexahedron , or disdyakis dodecahedron . The crystals can have rounded-off and unexpressive edges and can be elongated. Diamonds (especially those with rounded crystal faces) are commonly found coated in nyf , an opaque gum-like skin. Some diamonds contain opaque fibers. They are referred to as opaque if

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4160-410: The bonds between nearest neighbors are even stronger, but the bonds between parallel adjacent planes are weak, so the planes easily slip past each other. Thus, graphite is much softer than diamond. However, the stronger bonds make graphite less flammable. Diamonds have been adopted for many uses because of the material's exceptional physical characteristics. It has the highest thermal conductivity and

4240-512: The carbon source is more likely carbonate rocks and organic carbon in sediments, rather than coal. Diamonds are far from evenly distributed over the Earth. A rule of thumb known as Clifford's rule states that they are almost always found in kimberlites on the oldest part of cratons , the stable cores of continents with typical ages of 2.5   billion years or more. However, there are exceptions. The Argyle diamond mine in Australia ,

4320-436: The coloration, while pure or nearly pure diamonds are transparent and colorless. Most diamond impurities replace a carbon atom in the crystal lattice , known as a carbon flaw . The most common impurity, nitrogen, causes a slight to intense yellow coloration depending upon the type and concentration of nitrogen present. The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) classifies low saturation yellow and brown diamonds as diamonds in

4400-501: The compositions of minerals are analyzed as if they were in equilibrium with mantle minerals. Finding kimberlites requires persistence, and only a small fraction contain diamonds that are commercially viable. The only major discoveries since about 1980 have been in Canada. Since existing mines have lifetimes of as little as 25 years, there could be a shortage of new diamonds in the future. Diamonds are dated by analyzing inclusions using

4480-410: The compressibility κ {\displaystyle \kappa } (denoted β in some fields) may be expressed as where V is volume and p is pressure. The choice to define compressibility as the negative of the fraction makes compressibility positive in the (usual) case that an increase in pressure induces a reduction in volume. The reciprocal of compressibility at fixed temperature

4560-598: The decay of radioactive isotopes. Depending on the elemental abundances, one can look at the decay of rubidium to strontium , samarium to neodymium , uranium to lead , argon-40 to argon-39 , or rhenium to osmium . Those found in kimberlites have ages ranging from 1 to 3.5 billion years , and there can be multiple ages in the same kimberlite, indicating multiple episodes of diamond formation. The kimberlites themselves are much younger. Most of them have ages between tens of millions and 300 million years old, although there are some older exceptions (Argyle, Premier and Wawa). Thus,

4640-441: The design of aircraft. These effects, often several of them at a time, made it very difficult for World War II era aircraft to reach speeds much beyond 800 km/h (500 mph). Many effects are often mentioned in conjunction with the term "compressibility", but regularly have little to do with the compressible nature of air. From a strictly aerodynamic point of view, the term should refer only to those side-effects arising as

4720-470: The diamond crystal lattice. Plastic deformation is the cause of color in some brown and perhaps pink and red diamonds. In order of increasing rarity, yellow diamond is followed by brown, colorless, then by blue, green, black, pink, orange, purple, and red. "Black", or carbonado , diamonds are not truly black, but rather contain numerous dark inclusions that give the gems their dark appearance. Colored diamonds contain impurities or structural defects that cause

4800-506: The diamond lattice is 1.732 a /4 where a is the lattice constant, usually given in Angstrøms as a = 3.567 Å, which is 0.3567 nm. A diamond cubic lattice can be thought of as two interpenetrating face-centered cubic lattices with one displaced by 1 ⁄ 4 of the diagonal along a cubic cell, or as one lattice with two atoms associated with each lattice point. Viewed from a <1 1 1> crystallographic direction , it

4880-415: The diamond lattice, donating a hole into the valence band . Substantial conductivity is commonly observed in nominally undoped diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition . This conductivity is associated with hydrogen -related species adsorbed at the surface, and it can be removed by annealing or other surface treatments. Thin needles of diamond can be made to vary their electronic band gap from

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4960-407: The diamonds' surface cannot be wet by water, but can be easily wet and stuck by oil. This property can be utilized to extract diamonds using oil when making synthetic diamonds. However, when diamond surfaces are chemically modified with certain ions, they are expected to become so hydrophilic that they can stabilize multiple layers of water ice at human body temperature . The surface of diamonds

5040-449: The fibers grow from a clear substrate or fibrous if they occupy the entire crystal. Their colors range from yellow to green or gray, sometimes with cloud-like white to gray impurities. Their most common shape is cuboidal, but they can also form octahedra, dodecahedra, macles, or combined shapes. The structure is the result of numerous impurities with sizes between 1 and 5 microns. These diamonds probably formed in kimberlite magma and sampled

5120-408: The hardness and transparency of diamond, are the reasons that diamond anvil cells are the main tool for high pressure experiments. These anvils have reached pressures of 600 GPa . Much higher pressures may be possible with nanocrystalline diamonds. Usually, attempting to deform bulk diamond crystal by tension or bending results in brittle fracture. However, when single crystalline diamond

5200-455: The highest sound velocity. It has low adhesion and friction, and its coefficient of thermal expansion is extremely low. Its optical transparency extends from the far infrared to the deep ultraviolet and it has high optical dispersion . It also has high electrical resistance. It is chemically inert, not reacting with most corrosive substances, and has excellent biological compatibility. The equilibrium pressure and temperature conditions for

5280-408: The isentropic compressibility can be expressed as: The inverse of the compressibility is called the bulk modulus , often denoted K (sometimes B or β {\displaystyle \beta } ).). The compressibility equation relates the isothermal compressibility (and indirectly the pressure) to the structure of the liquid. The isothermal compressibility is generally related to

5360-423: The kimberlites formed independently of the diamonds and served only to transport them to the surface. Kimberlites are also much younger than the cratons they have erupted through. The reason for the lack of older kimberlites is unknown, but it suggests there was some change in mantle chemistry or tectonics. No kimberlite has erupted in human history. Most gem-quality diamonds come from depths of 150–250 km in

5440-474: The largest producer of diamonds by weight in the world, is located in a mobile belt , also known as an orogenic belt , a weaker zone surrounding the central craton that has undergone compressional tectonics. Instead of kimberlite , the host rock is lamproite . Lamproites with diamonds that are not economically viable are also found in the United States, India, and Australia. In addition, diamonds in

5520-468: The liquid or gas from the voids. This can happen over a period of time, resulting in settlement . It is an important concept in geotechnical engineering in the design of certain structural foundations. For example, the construction of high-rise structures over underlying layers of highly compressible bay mud poses a considerable design constraint, and often leads to use of driven piles or other innovative techniques. The degree of compressibility of

5600-467: The macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage. Diamond has a cleavage plane and is therefore more fragile in some orientations than others. Diamond cutters use this attribute to cleave some stones before faceting them. "Impact toughness" is one of the main indexes to measure the quality of synthetic industrial diamonds. Diamond has compressive yield strength of 130–140   GPa. This exceptionally high value, along with

5680-591: The melting point of diamond increases slowly with increasing pressure; but at pressures of hundreds of GPa, it decreases. At high pressures, silicon and germanium have a BC8 body-centered cubic crystal structure, and a similar structure is predicted for carbon at high pressures. At 0 K , the transition is predicted to occur at 1100 GPa . Results published in an article in the scientific journal Nature Physics in 2010 suggest that, at ultra-high pressures and temperatures (about 10 million atmospheres or 1 TPa and 50,000 °C), diamond melts into

5760-579: The melts to carry diamonds to the surface before they dissolve. Kimberlite pipes can be difficult to find. They weather quickly (within a few years after exposure) and tend to have lower topographic relief than surrounding rock. If they are visible in outcrops, the diamonds are never visible because they are so rare. In any case, kimberlites are often covered with vegetation, sediments, soils, or lakes. In modern searches, geophysical methods such as aeromagnetic surveys , electrical resistivity , and gravimetry , help identify promising regions to explore. This

5840-469: The normal 5.6 eV to near zero by selective mechanical deformation. High-purity diamond wafers 5 cm in diameter exhibit perfect resistance in one direction and perfect conductance in the other, creating the possibility of using them for quantum data storage. The material contains only 3 parts per million of nitrogen. The diamond was grown on a stepped substrate, which eliminated cracking. Diamonds are naturally lipophilic and hydrophobic , which means

5920-620: The presence of natural minerals and oxides. The clarity scale grades the diamond based on the color, size, location of impurity and quantity of clarity visible under 10x magnification. Inclusions in diamond can be extracted by optical methods. The process is to take pre-enhancement images, identifying the inclusion removal part and finally removing the diamond facets and noises. Between 25% and 35% of natural diamonds exhibit some degree of fluorescence when examined under invisible long-wave ultraviolet light or higher energy radiation sources such as X-rays and lasers. Incandescent lighting will not cause

6000-463: The relation between the pressure, density and temperature is known as the equation of state denoted by some function F {\displaystyle F} . The Van der Waals equation is an example of an equation of state for a realistic gas. Knowing the equation of state, the compressibility can be determined for any substance. The speed of sound is defined in classical mechanics as: It follows, by replacing partial derivatives , that

6080-529: The size of the resulting indentation, a Vickers hardness value for the material can be determined. Diamond's great hardness relative to other materials has been known since antiquity, and is the source of its name. This does not mean that it is infinitely hard, indestructible, or unscratchable. Indeed, diamonds can be scratched by other diamonds and worn down over time even by softer materials, such as vinyl phonograph records . Diamond hardness depends on its purity, crystalline perfection, and orientation: hardness

6160-419: The stable phase of carbon is graphite, but diamond is metastable and its rate of conversion to graphite is negligible. However, at temperatures above about 4500 K , diamond rapidly converts to graphite. Rapid conversion of graphite to diamond requires pressures well above the equilibrium line: at 2000 K , a pressure of 35 GPa is needed. Above the graphite–diamond–liquid carbon triple point,

6240-524: The surface in volcanic eruptions and deposited in igneous rocks known as kimberlites and lamproites . Synthetic diamonds can be grown from high-purity carbon under high pressures and temperatures or from hydrocarbon gases by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Imitation diamonds can also be made out of materials such as cubic zirconia and silicon carbide . Natural, synthetic, and imitation diamonds are most commonly distinguished using optical techniques or thermal conductivity measurements. Diamond

6320-454: The volatiles. Diamonds can also form polycrystalline aggregates. There have been attempts to classify them into groups with names such as boart , ballas , stewartite, and framesite, but there is no widely accepted set of criteria. Carbonado, a type in which the diamond grains were sintered (fused without melting by the application of heat and pressure), is black in color and tougher than single crystal diamond. It has never been observed in

6400-430: The world's largest diamond deposit, estimated at trillions of carats, and formed by an asteroid impact. A common misconception is that diamonds form from highly compressed coal . Coal is formed from buried prehistoric plants, and most diamonds that have been dated are far older than the first land plants . It is possible that diamonds can form from coal in subduction zones , but diamonds formed in this way are rare, and

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