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34-414: (Period: 2003–2016)6,012 m/s (212,300 cu ft/s) (Period: 1971–2000)6,260.1 m/s (221,070 cu ft/s) (Period: 2013–2015)5,220 m/s (184,000 cu ft/s) The Kapuas River ( Old Indonesian spelling : Kapoeas River ) is a river in the Indonesian part of Borneo island, at the geographic center of Maritime Southeast Asia . At 1,143 kilometers (710 mi) in length, it

68-409: A u , but signed it as Soekarno . Tropical forests Some tropical forest types are difficult to categorize. While forests in temperate areas are readily categorized on the basis of tree canopy density, such schemes do not work well in tropical forests. There is no single scheme that defines what a forest is, in tropical regions or elsewhere. Because of these difficulties, information on

102-614: A marshy plain. There, the elevation decreases by only 50 meters (160 ft) over 900 km (560 mi) from Putussibau to the river delta. About 350 km (220 mi) from the source, near the northern shore of the river, lies a system of Kapuas Lakes which are connected to the river by numerous channels. These lakes are Bekuan (area 1,268 hectares), Belida (600 ha), Genali (2,000 ha), Keleka Tangai (756 ha), Luar (5,208 ha), Pengembung (1,548 ha), Sambor (673 ha), Sekawi (672 ha), Sentarum (2,324 ha), Sependan (604 ha), Seriang (1,412) Sumbai (800 ha), Sumpa (664) and Tekenang (1,564 ha). When

136-456: A portion of them (depending on how they are defined – see maps). The remaining tropical forests are a diversity of many different forest types including: Eucalyptus open forest, tropical coniferous forests , savanna woodland ( e.g. Sahelian forest ), and mountain forests (the higher elevations of which are cloud forests ). Over even relatively short distances, the boundaries between these biomes may be unclear, with ecotones between

170-527: A second book, Maleische Spraakkunst , in 1910. The latter was translated by T.W. Kamil into Tata Bahasa Melayu in 1983 and became the primary guide for the spelling and usage of the Malay language in Indonesia. The Van Ophuijsen system was modelled extensively on Dutch orthography , ostensibly to make pronunciation of Malay and Indonesian words more easily understandable to Dutch colonial authorities. Thus,

204-447: A wide range of disturbances, including more localized pressures such as habitat loss and degradation and anthropogenic climate change . Studies have also shown that ongoing climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of some climate extremes (e.g. droughts, heatwaves and hurricanes) which, in combination with other local human disturbances, are driving unprecedented negative ecological consequences for tropical forests around

238-563: Is 3,666 mm. The average runoff is around 2,339 mm. The discharge rate varies through the year, averaging around 5,600–7,800 m/s (200,000–280,000 cu ft/s) at the delta and 2,000 m/s (71,000 cu ft/s) upstream, at the confluence of the Tawang . The discharge peaks during the rainy seasons in April and November, during which the water level may rise by 10–12 m (33–39 ft) overnight, overflowing river banks and flooding

272-641: Is the longest river in the island of Borneo and the longest river in Indonesia and one of the world's longest island rivers. It originates in the Müller mountain range at the center of the island and flows west into the South China Sea creating an extended marshy delta. The delta is located west-southwest of Pontianak , the capital of the West Kalimantan province. This Kapuas River should be distinguished from another Kapuas River , which starts on

306-596: Is the widest, and is therefore called the Big Kapuas ( Indonesian : Kapuas Besar ). The largest tributary is the Melawi River , which occurs to the left near the city of Sintang , about 465 km from the mouth. Other major tributaries are the Landak, Kubu, Punggur, and Sekayam rivers. The main tributaries from the mouth: tributary tributary (km) (km) (m/s) The climate is warm and very humid, with

340-503: The chameleon . Otters and crocodiles are common in the Kapuas River, but frogs are nearly absent. Agile gibbons ( Hylobates agilis ), Müller's Bornean gibbons ( Hylobates muelleri ), Prevost's squirrels ( Callosciurus prevostii ), and treeshrews inhabit the trees above the river. There are two national parks on the river banks, Betung Kerihun with an area of 8,000 km, and Danau Sentarum (an area of 1,320 km),

374-517: The old-growth forest had been reduced from 76% to 50% of the island, mostly due to fire and agricultural expansion . A widely-held view is that placing a value on the ecosystem services these forests provide may bring about more sustainable policies. However, clear monitoring and evaluation mechanisms for environmental, social and economic outcomes are needed. For example, a study in Vietnam indicated that poor and inconsistent data combined with

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408-796: The Van Ophuijsen system led to the development of a partially revised orthography called the Republican Spelling System in 1947, and eventually to the adoption of the Enhanced Indonesian Spelling System in 1972. Van Ophuijsen spellings continue to be frequently used in Indonesian names like Soerjadjaja ( Suryajaya , also written in a mixed spelling as Soeryadjaya ). Since spelling of Indonesian names are fluid, usage can also be inconsistent: for example, Sukarno wrote his own name with

442-503: The arowana and white-edge freshwater whipray , and the wallago catfish , which formerly migrated in large schools up and down the Kapuas River. Part of the high species diversity in the Kapuas is related to the many different habitats in the river basin. In the headwaters are fast-flowing highland streams , typically dominated by small loaches , and small —often acidic ( blackwater )— forest streams and peat swamps with species such as

476-417: The average annual precipitation ranging from year to year between 2,863 to 5,517 mm (112.7–217.2 in), and the number of rainy days between 120 and 309; the largest precipitation was observed in 1976 (120 rainy days) and the wettest in 1988, with only 184 rainy days. The temperature is rather stable with a typical minimum of 24 °C (75 °F) and a maximum of 32 °C (90 °F) throughout

510-448: The economically important species are food fish such as Pangasius catfish, giant gourami , kissing gourami , snakeheads , and large cyprinids such as Tor mahseers and barbs such as Leptobarbus and Puntioplites , and species for the aquarium trade such as the super red arowana and various rasboras . Because of overfishing and habitat degradation, several species are threatened. Among these endangered species are

544-419: The extent of tropical forests varies between sources. However, tropical forests are extensive, making up just under half the world's forests. The tropical domain has the largest proportion of the world's forests (45 percent), followed by the boreal, temperate and subtropical domains. More than 3.6 million hectares of virgin tropical forest was lost in 2018. The original tropical rainforests , which covered

578-462: The fish in the Kapuas River are distributed as follows: 54% are omnivores ; 36% are carnivorous and eat other fish (14%), insects (5%), and mixed small forest animals (17%). The remaining 10% are herbivorous, with 4% of them specialising in algae . The Kapuas River is the major waterway connecting the center of the island with its western coast. The large river width and depth (up to 27 meters) support intensive cargo and passenger shipping over most of

612-443: The giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii ), water striders , and other aquatic insects . The rich flora and fauna result in very complex food chains , with fishes consuming foods ranging from fruits to other fish . For example, Hemirhamphodon pogonognathus feeds exclusively on terrestrial insects. Abundant fruits and seeds enter the river after falling from large trees that bend over its waters. The feeding habits of

646-455: The lakes. The river discharges into the South China Sea creating a marshy delta, which spreads both inland and into the sea, with the silt deposits extending up to 50–60 km (31–37 mi) from the Borneo coast. The delta is located west-southwest of Pontianak , the capital of West Kalimantan province, which lies at the equator . The delta has five arms, of which the northernmost one

680-467: The latter includes the Kapuas Lakes. About 300 species of fish have been identified in the river basin , of which 234 are of high economic value. There are more fish species than any other river basin in Indonesia. They belong to 120 genera and 40 families with the two major groups being cyprinids and catfish . More than 30% of the species originate from the sea and inhabit the delta areas. Among

714-534: The main types. The nature of tropical forests in any given area is affected by several factors, most importantly: The Global 200 scheme, promoted by the World Wildlife Fund , classifies three main tropical forest habitat types ( biomes ), grouping together tropical and sub-tropical areas (maps below): Extent of tropical and sub-tropical - A number of tropical forests have been designated High-Biodiversity Wilderness Areas , but remain subject to

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748-423: The monthly precipitation exceeds about 300 mm (12 in), the river overflows its banks, diverting much of its waters to the lakes at a rate of up to 1,000 m/s (35,000 cu ft/s), and forming a single volume of water with them. This outflow prevents massive flooding of the lower reaches of the river; it also promotes fish migration from the river to the lakes for spawning, but drives birds away from

782-647: The nearby areas. The river originates near the center of Borneo, south of the Indonesian- Malaysian border, in the joint between the western slope of the Müller Mountain Range , which runs through the island center, and the southern slope of the Upper Kapuas Range ( Indonesian : Kapuas Hulu ), which is located more to the west. For about 165 km (103 mi) it flows through a mountainous terrain and then descends to

816-487: The orthography, was a Dutch linguist. He was a former inspector in a school at Bukittinggi , West Sumatra in the 1890s, before he became a professor of the Malay language at Leiden University in the Netherlands. Together with two native assistants, Engku Nawawi and Mohammed Taib Sultan Ibrahim, he published the new orthography on Kitab Logat Malajoe: Woordenlijst voor Spelling der Maleische Taal in 1901, and published

850-520: The other side of the same mountain range in central Borneo but flows to the south, merging with the Barito River and discharging into the Java Sea . The river is 1,143 km (710 mi) long and up to 700 m (0.43 mi) wide at its delta; ~99,000 km (38,000 sq mi) the river basin covers more than 67% of West Kalimantan. The average annual rainfall in the catchment area

884-502: The planet's land surface, were the type of flora that covered Earth.Other canopy forests expanded north-south of the equator during the Paleogene epoch, around 40 million years ago, as a result of the emergence of drier, cooler climates. The tropical forest was originally identified as a specific type of biome in 1949. Tropical forests are often thought of as evergreen rainforests and moist forests, but these account for only

918-544: The river and is the longest bridge in Kalimantan. Another major bridge over the area is the Kapuas I Bridge. In 2022, the local government decided to build a newer bridge to accommodate increased traffic in commuters and goods, located to be in parallel with the existing bridge. 0°15′58″S 109°52′31″E  /  0.2660°S 109.8754°E  / -0.2660; 109.8754 Van Ophuijsen Spelling System#Characteristics The Van Ophuijsen Spelling System

952-412: The river length. Ships with a draft of up to 3 meters can navigate up to Sintang , 465 km from the mouth, and those with a draft of up to 2 meters can reach the town of Putussibau (902 km from the mouth). Logging and rafting of timber occur all along the river. Fishing is also common, especially at the Kapuas Lakes and near the river delta. The Tayan Bridge which opened in 2016, crosses over

986-617: The system used the Dutch variant of the Latin script , reflecting contemporaneous Dutch phonology . Some noticeable characteristics of this spelling system were: While the Van Ophuijsen system greatly aided Dutch speakers in pronouncing the Indonesian language, its complete reliance on Dutch orthography, which is rich in digraphs and trigraphs, often resulted in unwieldy spellings of Indonesian words. For example: The perceived shortcomings of

1020-454: The tiny Sundadanio rasboras, Sphaerichthys gouramis, and macropodusine gouramis. The main river itself also includes several habitats, ranging from the nearshore to open waters. In the deepest sections, no light exists and in one species, Lepidocephalus spectrum , this has resulted in a complete reduction of both eyes and pigmentation (similar to cavefish ). Owing to the warm climate and abundance of food, most fishes breed all through

1054-476: The whole year. In the upper and middle reaches, the river flows through dense tropical forests ; the rich flora and fauna are the subject of international research. Discoveries of new species are frequent, such as the Kapuas mud snake ( Enhydris gyii ), which was discovered in 2003–2005 by German and American herpetologists . This species is remarkable in that it can spontaneously change its skin color, similar to

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1088-625: The world. All tropical forests have experienced at least some levels of disturbance. Current deforestation in the biodiversity hotspots of North of South America, sub-Saharan Africa, South-East Asia and the Pacific, can be attributed to export of commodities such as: beef, soy, coffee, cacao, palm oil , and timber; there is a requirement for "strong transnational efforts ... by improving supply chain transparency [and] public–private engagement". A study in Borneo describes how, between 1973 and 2018,

1122-597: The year with only a few species like fire eel ( Mastacembelus erythrotaenia ) having certain reproductive periods . The number of individuals per species is relatively low. The large variety of species may be explained by the fact that some 6,000 years ago, the Kapuas River, as a tributary of the Sunda River , was connected to other tributary rivers of South Sumatra , Java , and the Malay Peninsula . Apart from fish, there are numerous crabs , prawns (such as

1156-800: Was the Romanized standard orthography for the Indonesian language from 1901 to 1947. Before the Van Ophuijsen Spelling System was in force, the Malay language (and consequently Indonesian) in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia ) did not have a standardized spelling, or was written in the Jawi script . In 1947, the Van Ophuijsen Spelling System was replaced by the Republican Spelling System . Prof. Charles Adriaan van Ophuijsen  [ nl ; id ] , who devised

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