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168-486: The city, best known as the location of the Battle of Karbala in 680 AD, or for the shrines of Hussain and Abbas , is considered a holy city for Shia Muslims , and due to this, the city is also referred to with the honorific name Karbala al-Muqaddasah ( Arabic : كربلاء المقدسة ). Tens of millions of Shi'ite Muslims visit the site twice a year. The martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali|Husayn ibn 'Ali and Abbas ibn 'Ali

336-474: A holy city in Shia Islam, it is also referred to with the honorific name Najaf al-Ashraf ( Arabic : ٱلنَّجَف ٱلْأَشْرَف ). According to Ibn al-Manzur , the word, "najaf" ( نجف ), literally means a high and rectangular place around which water is accumulated, although the water does not go above its level. Al-Shaykh al-Saduq appeals to a hadith from Ja'far al-Sadiq , claiming that "Najaf" comes from

504-802: A hot desert climate ( BWh in the Köppen climate classification ) with extremely hot, long, dry summers and mild winters. Almost all of the yearly precipitation is received between November and April, though no month is wet. Some Shi'ites consider this verse of the Quran to refer to Iraq, the land of the Shi'ite sacred sites of Kufah , Najaf, Karbala, Kadhimiyyah and Samarra , since the Monotheistic preachers Ibrāhīm ( Abraham ) and Lūṭ ( Lot ), who are regarded as Prophets in Islam , are believed to have lived in

672-661: A Sufi order, declared the state religion to be Twelver Shi'ism . In this regard, Karbala and Muharram rituals came to be a vehicle of Safavid propaganda and a means of consolidating the dynasty's Shi'a identity. Riza Yildirim has claimed that the impetus of the Safvid revolution was the revenge of the death of Husayn. The founder of the dynasty, Shah Ismail , considered himself to be the Mahdi (the twelfth Shi'a Imam) or his forerunner. Similarly, Qajars also patronized Muharram rituals such as processions, taziya and majalis , to improve

840-485: A border post where he would fight alongside the Muslim armies. According to Madelung, these reports are probably untrue as Husayn at this stage is unlikely to have considered submitting to Yazid. A mawla of Husayn's wife later claimed that Husayn had suggested that he be allowed to leave, so that all parties could allow the fluid political situation to clarify. Ibn Sa'd sent the proposal, whatever it was, to Ibn Ziyad, who

1008-405: A caliph of Islam could not afford to be seen as publicly responsible and so diverted blame onto Ibn Ziyad by hypocritically cursing him. According to Howard, some traditional sources have a tendency to exonerate Yazid at the cost of Ibn Ziyad and lower authorities. Wellhausen has described Husayn's revolt as a premature and ill-prepared campaign by an ambitious person. He writes "He reaches out to

1176-469: A car bomb exploded about 600 ft (180 m) from the shrine to Husayn, killing 47 and wounding over 150. On January 19, 2008, 2 million Iraqi Shia pilgrims marched through Karbala city, Iraq to commemorate Ashura . 20,000 Iraqi troops and police guarded the event amid tensions due to clashes between Iraqi troops and Shia which left 263 people dead (in Basra and Nasiriya ). Karbala experiences

1344-640: A century-long effort by the Ottomans to shift the flow of the river, so as to deprive marsh-dwelling tribes like the Khaza'il of the watery environment that allowed them to evade state control. These long-term efforts rendered successful the construction of the Hindiyya Canal in 1793, which further shifted the flow of the Euphrates. These hydrological shifts were to have religious implications. Most notable

1512-500: A combination of karb (Arabic: كَرْب , "the land which will cause many agonies") and balāʾ (Arabic: بَلاء , "afflictions"). The Battle of Karbala was fought on the bare deserts on the way to Kufa on October 10, 680 AD (10 Muharram 61 AH). Both Husayn ibn Ali and his brother Abbas ibn Ali were buried by the local Banī Asad tribe, at what later became known as the Mashhad Al-Husayn . The battle itself occurred as

1680-634: A companion of Muhammad, to fight the Umayyads. As long as Iraq was in Umayyad hands, the movement remained underground. After the death of Yazid in November 683, the people of Iraq drove out the Umayyad governor Ibn Ziyad; the Tawwabin called on the people to avenge Husayn's death, attracting large-scale support. Lacking any political program, they intended to punish the Umayyads or sacrifice themselves in

1848-431: A desolate place without fortifications or water. One of Husayn's companions suggested that they attack Hurr and move to the fortified village of al-Aqr. Husayn refused, stating that he did not want to start the hostilities. On 2 October 680 (2 Muharram 61 AH), Husayn arrived at Karbala , a desert plain 70 kilometers (43 mi) north of Kufa, and set up camp. On the following day, a 4,000-strong Kufan army arrived under

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2016-538: A distinct religious identity and helped transform it into a distinct religious sect. Heinz Halm writes: "There was no religious aspect to Shi'ism prior to 680. The death of the third imam and his followers marked the 'big bang' that created the rapidly expanding cosmos of Shi'ism and brought it into motion." Husayn's death at Karbala is believed by Shi'as to be a sacrifice made to prevent the corruption of Islam by tyrannical rulers and to protect its ideology. He is, as such, believed to have been fully aware of his fate and

2184-412: A dream to move forward irrespective of the consequences. At a place known as Tan'im, he seized a caravan carrying dyeing plants and clothes sent by the governor of Yemen to Yazid. Further on the way, at a place called Tha'labiyya, the small caravan received the news of the execution of Ibn Aqil and the indifference of the people of Kufa. Husayn at this point is reported to have considered turning back, but

2352-475: A matter well known among them: I heard it from a creditable person, but was not present at one of those nights. I saw, however, several such afflicted persons, who had not yet received, but were looking forward for the advantages of this "night of revival". In the 16th century, Najaf was conquered by the Ottoman Empire . The Safavid dynasty of Iran maintained continuous interest to this Shia site. During

2520-630: A model for development in Iraq. Najaf have been experiencing economic boom, along with political events. In 2008, over 50% of about licensed 200 investment projects totaling $ 8 billion were under construction in Najaf Governorate , with most development coming in the housing and tourism sectors. Najaf has been described as a strategically important city with a stable investment environment and available skilled manpower. The city has experienced an increase in investment. Saudi Arabian firm ACWA Power

2688-570: A move labelled by the historian Wilferd Madelung as breach of the Hasan–Muawiya treaty. With no precedence in Islamic history, hereditary succession aroused opposition from several quarters. Mu'awiya summoned a shura , or consultative assembly, in Damascus and persuaded representatives from many provinces to agree to his plan by diplomacy and bribes. He then ordered Marwan ibn al-Hakam , then

2856-584: A pivotal role in facilitating transportation, particularly for religious tourism. Annually, it oversees the transit of over 3 million passengers, predominantly pilgrims visiting the holy sites in Najaf. It is situated in the eastern part of Najaf, approximately 6 kilometres from the city center. In February 2024, the Iraqi National Investment Commission (NIC) unveiled a project to construct an inter-city high-speed rail connecting

3024-444: A place where the hounds would not pursue it. On inquiry as to why the place was a sanctuary, he was told that it was the burial place of ‘Ali. Harūn ar-Rashīd ordered a mausoleum to be built on the spot and in due course the town of Najaf grew around the mausoleum. In early 14th century, Sheikh Ibn Battuta visited the burial site of Ali ibn Abi Talib during his travels in Iraq after his pilgrimage to Mecca. During this period, Najaf

3192-497: A rebellion by the dissatisfied Arab aristocracy. After crushing the rebellion, Mukhtar executed Kufans involved in the killing of Husayn, including Ibn Sa'd and Shemr, while thousands of people fled to Basra. He then sent his general Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar to fight an approaching Umayyad army, led by Ibn Ziyad, which had been sent to reconquer the province. The Umayyad army was routed at the Battle of Khazir in August 686 and Ibn Ziyad

3360-517: A result of Husain's refusal of Yazid 's demand for allegiance to his caliphate. The Kufan governor, Ubaydallah ibn Ziyad, sent thirty thousand horsemen against Husayn as he traveled to Kufa . Husayn had no army, he was with his family and few friends who joined them, so there were around 73 men, including the 6-month-old Ali Asghar , son of Imam Husayn, in total. The horsemen, under 'Umar ibn Sa'd, were ordered to deny Husayn and his followers water to force Husayn to agree to give an oath of allegiance. On

3528-489: A significant role in the Iranian Revolution of 1979. In contrast to the traditional view of Shi'ism as a religion of suffering, mourning and political quietism, Shi'a Islam and Karbala were given a new interpretation in the period preceding the revolution by rationalist intellectuals and religious revisionists like Jalal Al-e-Ahmad , Ali Shariati and Nematollah Salehi Najafabadi . According to these, Shi'ism

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3696-576: A similar view, Madelung has argued that Husayn was not a "reckless rebel" but a religious man motivated by pious convictions. According to him, Husayn was convinced that "the family of the Prophet was divinely chosen to lead the community founded by Moḥammad, as the latter had been chosen, and had both an inalienable right and an obligation to seek this leadership." He was, however, not seeking martyrdom and wanted to return when his expected support did not materialize. Maria Dakake holds that Husayn considered

3864-481: A stick. The historian Henri Lammens has suggested that this is a duplication of the report regarding Ibn Ziyad. Yazid was compassionate towards the women and Ali Zayn al-Abidin, and cursed Ibn Ziyad for murdering Husayn, stating that had he been there, he would have spared him. One of his courtiers asked for the hand of a captive woman from Husayn's family in marriage, which resulted in heated altercation between Yazid and Zaynab. The women of Yazid's household joined

4032-543: A tenth century Sufi, who was executed on a charge of claiming divinity. Maqtal (pl. Maqatil ) works narrate the story of someone's death. Although Maqatil on the deaths of Ali, Uthman and various others have been written, the Maqtal genre has focused mainly on the story of Husayn's death. As well as Abu Mikhnaf's Maqtal , other Arabic Maqatil on Husayn were written. Most of these mix history with legend and have elaborate details on Husayn's miraculous birth, which

4200-564: A tomb and shrine to Husayn ibn Ali , grandson of Muhammad and son of Ali ibn Abi Talib , and grew as a city to meet the needs of pilgrims. The city and tombs were greatly expanded by successive Muslim rulers, but suffered repeated destruction from attacking armies. The original shrine was destroyed by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakkil in 850 but was rebuilt in its present form around 979, only to be partly destroyed by fire in 1086 and rebuilt yet again. Like Najaf ,

4368-463: A total of a few hundred men have been reported by some sources. Ibn Sa'd's army totaled 4,000. According to the Shi'a sources, however, more troops had joined Ibn Sa'd in preceding days, swelling his army to 30,000 strong. The ditch containing wood was set alight. Husayn then delivered a speech to his opponents reminding them of his status as Muhammad's grandson and reproaching them for inviting and then abandoning him. He asked to be allowed to leave. He

4536-461: Is 23.6 °C (74.5 °F). The rainfall averages 69 mm (2.71 in). An-Najaf is considered sacred by Shi'a Muslims. An-Najaf is renowned as the site of the burial place of Muhammad's son-in-law and cousin, ‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib . The city is now a center of pilgrimage throughout the Shi'ite Islamic world. It is estimated that only Mecca and Medina receive more Muslim pilgrims. As the burial site of one of Shi'a Islam's most important figure,

4704-646: Is a large sports complex housing the Karbala International Stadium with a capacity of 30,000 spectators, a smaller football stadium with a capacity of 2,000, as well as a football field for training, a swimming hall, and a hotel. There are many references in books and films to Karbala, specifically referring to Imam Husayn's death at the Battle of Karbala . One such example is the Iranian film Hussein Who Said No . In paintings, Husayn

4872-529: Is a massive annual pilgrimage event that takes place in Karbala. It is considered one of the largest peaceful gatherings in the world. In 2017, approximately 30 million people took part in the pilgrimage. Karbala FC is a football club based in Karbala. It plays in the top tier Iraq Stars League , the highest division of the Iraqi football league system. The Karbala Sports City located south of Karbala city,

5040-400: Is also led riderless through the streets. In Iran, the battle scenes of Karbala are performed on stage in front of an audience in a ritual called taziya (passion play), also known as shabih . In India however, taziya refers to the coffins and replicas of Husayn's tomb carried in processions. Most of these rituals take place during the first ten days of Muharram, reaching a climax on

5208-423: Is believed to be one of the fundamental objectives of the future revolution of the twelfth Shi'a Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi , whose return is awaited. With his return, Husayn and his seventy-two companions are expected to be resurrected along with their killers, who will then be punished. Shi'a Muslims consider pilgrimages to Husayn's tomb to be a source of divine blessings and rewards. According to Shi'a tradition

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5376-537: Is commemorated annually by near a hundred million of Shi'ites in the city. Up to 34 million pilgrims visit the city to observe ʿĀshūrāʾ (the tenth day of Muharram ), which marks the anniversary of Husayn's death, but the main event is the Arbaʿeen (the 40th day after 'Ashura'), where up to 40 million visit the graves. Most of the pilgrims travel on foot and come from all around Iraq and more than 56 countries. There are many opinions among different investigators, as to

5544-441: Is considered by Shi'as to be a source of salvation in the afterlife, and is undertaken as a remembrance of his suffering. After the death of Husayn, when his family was being taken to Ibn Ziyad, Husayn's sister Zaynab is reported to have cried out after seeing his headless body: "O Muhammad!... Here is Husayn in the open, stained with blood and with limbs torn off. O Muhammad! Your daughters are prisoners, your progeny are killed, and

5712-402: Is in process to construct 1,000 MW solar power plant in Najaf. The government proposed to build 15 housing complexes in Najaf, with a cost of $ 7 billion as a part of 240 projects. It also includes development of two industrial parks. In 2024, prime minister Mohammed Shia' Al Sudani announced several projects in the city, during his visit to Najaf. The projects proposed by Al-Sudani included

5880-521: Is located 30 km (19 mi) south of the ancient city of Babylon , and 400 km (248 mi) north of the ancient city of Ur . The city itself was founded in 791 [AD], by the Abbasid Caliph Harūn ar-Rashīd , as a shrine to ‘Alī bin Abī Ṭālib. Archaeological discoveries show the existence of a populace dating back to the 1st century BC. Najaf possesses one of the largest burial grounds in

6048-698: Is often depicted on a white horse impaled by arrows. A number of documentaries detailing the events of the Battle of Karbala have also been produced. In the Indian subcontinent , Karbala , apart from meaning the city of Karbala (which is usually referred to as Karbala-e-Mualla meaning Karbala the exalted), also means local grounds where commemorative processions end and/or ta'zīya are buried during Ashura or Arba'een, usually such grounds will have shabeeh (copy) of Rauza or some other structures. Thousands of ta'zīyas in various shapes and sizes are made every year for

6216-442: Is reported to have accepted but then persuaded otherwise by Shemr ibn Ziljawshan . Shemr argued that Husayn was in his domain and letting him go would be to demonstrate weakness. Ibn Ziyad then sent Shemr with orders to ask Husayn for his allegiance once more and to attack, kill and disfigure him if he was to refuse, as "a rebel, a seditious person, a brigand, an oppressor and he was to do no further harm after his death". If Ibn Sa'd

6384-546: Is stated to be on 10 Muharram, coinciding with his date of death. The universe as well as humanity are described as having been created on the day of Ashura (10 Muharram). Ashura is also asserted to have been the day of both Abraham 's and Muhammad's birth and of the ascension of Jesus to heaven , and of numerous other events concerning prophets. Husayn is claimed to have performed various miracles, including quenching his companions' thirst by putting his thumb in their mouths and satisfying their hunger by bringing down food from

6552-471: Is the earliest, and longest epic so far, written in the Albanian language ; the Battle of Karbala is described in detail and Frashëri eulogizes those who fell as martyrs, in particular Husayn. Najaf Najaf ( Arabic : ٱلنَّجَف ), is the capital city of Najaf Governorate in central Iraq about 160 km (99 mi) south of Baghdad . Its estimated population in 2024 is about 1.41 million people. It

6720-413: Is today known as Al-Hair and is where Husayn ibn Ali's grave is located. The investigator Yaqut al-Hamawi had pointed out that the meaning of Karbala could have several explanations, one of which is that the place where Husayn ibn Ali was martyred is made of soft earth— al-Karbalāt . According to Shia's belief, the archangel Gabriel narrated the true meaning of the name Karbala to Muhammad :

6888-469: Is unknown, he was an adult by the time of the revolt of Ibn al-Ash'ath , which occurred in 701, some twenty years after the Battle of Karbala. As such he knew many eyewitnesses and collected firsthand accounts and some with very short chains of transmission, usually only one or two intermediaries. The eyewitnesses were of two kinds: those from Husayn's side; and those from Ibn Sa'd's army. Since few people from Husayn's camp survived, most eyewitnesses were from

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7056-470: Is widely considered amongst the holiest cities of Shia Islam and one of its spiritual capitals, as well as the center of Shia political power in Iraq. It is the burial place of Muhammad 's son in law and cousin, ‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib , and thus a major pilgrimage destination for Shia Muslims. The largest cemetery in the world ( Wadi-us-Salaam ) and the oldest Shi'a Islamic seminary in the world ( Hawza of Najaf ) are located in Najaf. Due to Najaf's position as

7224-694: The History of Prophets and Kings , also known as The History of Tabari , by Muḥammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari ; and Ansab al-Ashraf by Ahmad ibn Yaḥya al-Baladhuri . Nevertheless, four manuscripts of a Maqtal located at Gotha (No. 1836), Berlin (Sprenger, Nos. 159–160), Leiden (No. 792), and Saint Petersburg (Am No. 78) libraries have been attributed to Abu Mikhnaf. Tabari quotes either directly from Abu Mikhnaf or from his student Ibn al-Kalbi, who took most of his material from Abu Mikhnaf. Tabari occasionally takes material from Ammar ibn Mu'awiya, Awana and other primary sources, which, however, adds little to

7392-558: The An-Najaf Stadium (also referred to as the old stadium) with a capacity of 12,000 spectators, and the newer Al-Najaf International Stadium with a capacity of 30,000. The latter stadium is the home of the Stars League club Al-Najaf as well as Naft Al-Wasat, whilst the former is the home stadium of the neighbouring Al-Kufa SC . The Iranian city of Najafabad was named by Shah Abbas I in honour of Najaf. According to

7560-461: The Day of Ashura . On this day, Shi'a Muslims mourn, hold public processions, organize religious gathering, beat their chests and in some cases self-flagellate . Sunni Muslims likewise regard the incident as a historical tragedy; Husayn and his companions are widely regarded as martyrs by both Sunni and Shi'a Muslims. After the third caliph Uthman 's assassination by rebels in 656, the rebels and

7728-544: The Euphrates river. Ibn Sa'd stationed 500 horsemen on the route leading to the river. Husayn and his companions remained without water for three days before a group of fifty men led by his half-brother Abbas was able to access the river. They could only fill twenty water-skins. Husayn and Ibn Sa'd met during the night to negotiate a settlement; it was rumored that Husayn made three proposals: either he be allowed to return to Medina, submit to Yazid directly, or be sent to

7896-517: The First Fitna (First Muslim Civil War). When Ali was assassinated by Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam , a Kharijite , in 661, his eldest son Hasan succeeded him but soon signed a peace treaty with Mu'awiya to avoid further bloodshed. In the treaty, Hasan was to hand over power to Mu'awiya on the condition that Mu'awiya be a just ruler and that he would not establish a dynasty. After the death of Hasan in 670, his younger brother Husayn became

8064-527: The Imam Ali Mosque is considered by Shiites as the third holiest Islamic site. The Imam ‘Ali Mosque is housed in a grand structure with a gold gilded dome and many precious objects in the walls. Nearby is the Wadi-us-Salaam cemetery, the largest in the world. It contains the tombs of several prophets and many of the devout from around the world aspire to be buried there, to be raised from

8232-919: The Mahdi Army attacked the Spanish-Salvadoran-ALARNG base (Camp Golf, later renamed Camp Baker) in An Najaf, part of a coordinated uprising across central and southern Iraq in an apparent attempt to seize control of the country ahead of the 30 June 2004 handover of power to a new Iraqi government. This uprising led to the American troops arriving in the city in the wake of the Spanish withdrawal. In August 2004, heavy fighting broke out again between U.S. forces and Al-Sadr's Mahdi Army. The battle lasted three weeks and ended when senior Iraqi cleric Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani negotiated an end to

8400-544: The Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–1639) , they were twice able to capture the city, but lost it again to the Ottomans in 1638. Under the rule of the Ottoman Empire , Najaf experienced severe difficulties as the result of repeated raids by Arab desert tribes and the Persian army with acute water shortages causing lack of a reliable water supply. The number of inhabited houses in the city had plummeted from 3,000 to just 30 by

8568-613: The Oudh Bequest . The Shia-ruled Indian Province of Awadh , known by the British as Oudh, had always sent money and pilgrims to the holy city. The Oudh money, 10 million rupees, originated in 1825 from the Awadh Nawab Ghazi-ud-Din Haider . One third was to go to his wives, and the other two-thirds went to holy cities of Karbala and Najaf. When his wives died in 1850, the money piled up with interest in

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8736-634: The Sanctuary of Imam Ali (considered the first of the Twelve Imams and the patriarch of the subsequent eleven Imams) is the destination of large numbers of Shi’i religious pilgrims annually hailing from around the world. The city of Najaf is home to Al-Najaf SC and Naft Al-Wasat SC that play in Iraq Stars League (the highest division) and the second tier Iraqi Premier Division League , respectively. Najaf has two football stadiums,

8904-501: The South Lebanon Army , asserting that Hezbollah operatives who died in martyrdom operations against them died glorious and heroic martyrs’ death. South Asian philosopher and poet Muhammad Iqbal sees Husayn's sacrifice as being similar to that of Ishmael and compares Yazid's opposition to Husayn with the opposition of Pharaoh to Moses . Urdu poet Ghalib compares Husayn's suffering with that of Mansur al-Hallaj ,

9072-500: The Syria -based Umayyad caliphs and had a long-standing attachment to the house of Ali. They proposed Husayn overthrow the Umayyads. On Husayn's way to Kufa with a retinue of about 70 men, his caravan was intercepted by a 1,000-strong army of the caliph at some distance from Kufa. He was forced to head north and encamp in the plain of Karbala on 2 October, where a larger Umayyad army of 4,000 arrived soon afterwards. Negotiations failed after

9240-704: The ancient Iraqi city of Kutha Rabba , before going to " The Blessed Land ". Then We delivered him(Ibrahim), along with Lot, to the land We had showered with blessings for all people. Aside from the story of Abraham and Lot in Polytheistic Mesopotamia , there are passages in the Quran about Mount Judi , Babil ("Babylon") and Qaryat Yunus ("Town of Jonah "). The tomb of the martyred Imam has acquired great significance in Shia tradition because he and his fellow martyrs are seen as models of jihad in

9408-478: The 11th century CE is the oldest hawza among those still active. Some of the prominent scholars that have graduated from the Najaf Seminary, include Murtadha al-Ansari , Muhammad Kazim Khurasani also known as al-Akhund , Mohammed Kazem Yazdi , Abbas Qomi also known as al-Muhaddith , Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei and Ali al-Sistani . Najaf International Airport is an important logistical hub that plays

9576-430: The 9th of Muharram, Husayn refused, and requested to be given the night to pray. On the 10th day of Muharram, Husayn ibn Ali prayed the morning prayer and led his troops into battle along with his brother Abbas. Many of Husayn's followers, including all of his present sons Ali Akbar , Ali Asghar (six months old) and his nephews Qassim, Aun and Muhammad were killed. In 63 AH (683 AD), Yazid ibn Mu'awiya released

9744-849: The Bani Hassan Canals on the Euphrates. Defense of the City Hall in Karbala – a series of skirmishes fought from April 3 to April 6, 2004, between the Iraqi rebels of the Mahdi Army trying to conquer the city hall and the defending Polish and Bulgarian soldiers from the Multinational Division Central-South In 2003 following the American invasion , the Karbala town council attempted to elect United States Marine Corps Lieutenant Colonel Matthew Lopez as mayor. Ostensibly so that his Marines, contractors, and funds could not leave. On April 14, 2007,

9912-468: The Banu Asad tribe, from the nearby village of Ghadiriya, buried the headless bodies of Husayn's companions. Husayn's family, along with the heads of the dead, were sent to Ibn Ziyad. He poked Husayn's mouth with a stick and intended to kill Ali Zayn al-Abidin, but spared him after the pleas of Husayn's sister Zaynab. The heads and the family were then sent to Yazid, who also poked Husayn's mouth with

10080-699: The Battle of Karbala by the Shi'a is not only the retelling of the story, but also presents them with "life models and norms of behavior" which are applicable to all aspects of life, which he calls the Karbala Paradigm. According to Olmo Gölz, the Karbala Paradigm provide Shi'as with heroic norms and a martyr ethos, and represents an embodiment of the battle between good and evil, justice and injustice. Rituals involving self-flagellation have been criticized by many Shi'a scholars as they are considered to be innovative practices damaging reputation of Shi'ism. Iranian supreme leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei has banned

10248-493: The Holy shrine's carpet-washing factory project will cost 3.46 billion. A cement bag factory covering an area of 75,000 square meters with a production capacity of 240 million bags per year, is being constructed in Najaf. Another project is a glass production factory, which will have a net profit of 32% in the first year of operation because the Najaf desert region has high-quality raw materials for this factory. Najaf being home to

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10416-664: The Imam Husayn Holy Shrine, was established in 2017. It has the faculties of engineering, administration, economics, law and pathology. It received its first batch of students in the academic year 2017–2018. The Hawza are Islamic education institutions that are administered under the guidance of a Grand Ayatollah or group of scholars to teach Shia Muslims and guide them through the rigorous journey of becoming an Alim (a religious scholar). Initially Karbala's hawza consisted mostly of Iranians and Turkish scholars. The death of Sharif-ul-Ulama Mazandarani in 1830 as well as

10584-412: The Iraqi National Investment Commission (NIC) unveiled a project to construct an inter-city high-speed rail connecting the cities of Karbala and Najaf . Once finished, it is set to accommodate up to 25,000 passengers per hour. As of 2024, Karbala has 4 sister cities : Battle of Karbala The Battle of Karbala ( Arabic : مَعْرَكَة كَرْبَلَاء , romanized :  maʿraka Karbalāʾ )

10752-626: The Kufans, led by Amr ibn al-Hajjaj, attacked Husayn's force, but was repulsed. Hand-to-hand fighting paused and further volleys of arrows were exchanged. Shemr, who commanded the left wing of the Umayyad army, launched an attack, but after losses on both sides he was repulsed. This was followed by cavalry attacks. Husayn's cavalry resisted fiercely and Ibn Sa'd brought in armoured cavalry and five hundred archers. After their horses were wounded by arrows, Husayn's cavalrymen dismounted and fought on foot. Since Umayyad forces could approach Husayn's army from

10920-616: The Safavids." Various Persian authors wrote texts retelling romanticized and synthesized versions of the battle and events from it, including Sa'id al-Din's Rawdat al-Islam (The Garden of Islam) and Al-Khawarazmi's Maqtal nur 'al-'a'emmah (The Site of the Murder of the Light of the Imams). These influenced the composition of the more popular text Rawdat al-Shuhada (Garden of Martyrs), which

11088-642: The Shah as the Yazid of his time. Condemning the Iranian monarchy, Khomeini wrote: "The struggle of al-Husayn at Karbalâ is interpreted in the same way as a struggle against the non-Islamic principle of monarchy." Opposition to the Shah was thus compared with the opposition of Husayn to Yazid, and Muharram ritual gatherings became increasingly political in nature. According to Aghaie, the Shah's hostility towards various Muharram rituals, which he considered to be uncivilized, contributed to his fall. The Islamic republic that

11256-404: The Shi'a, Husayn's suffering and death became a symbol of sacrifice in the struggle for right against wrong, and for justice and truth against injustice and falsehood. It also provides the members of the Shi'a faith with a catalog of heroic norms. The battle is commemorated during an annual ten-day period during the Islamic month of Muharram by Shi'a, culminating on tenth day of the month, known as

11424-544: The Tawwabin left to confront the Umayyads, after mourning for a day at Husayn's grave in Karbala. The armies met in January 685 at the three-day Battle of Ayn al-Warda in present-day northern Syria; most of the Tawwabin, including Ibn Surad, were killed. A few escaped to Kufa and joined Mukhtar. Mukhtar was an early settler of Kufa, having arrived in Iraq following its initial conquest by the Muslims. He had participated in

11592-533: The Umayyad governor Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad refused Husayn safe passage without submitting to his authority, a condition declined by Husayn. Battle ensued on 10 October during which Husayn was killed along with most of his relatives and companions, while his surviving family members were taken prisoner. The battle was the start of the Second Fitna , during which the Iraqis organized two separate campaigns to avenge

11760-440: The Umayyad rule oppressive and misguided, and revolted to reorient the Islamic community in the right direction. A similar view is held by Mahmoud Ayoub . S. M. Jafri proposes that Husayn, although motivated by ideology, did not intend to secure leadership for himself. Husayn, Jafri asserts, was from the start aiming for martyrdom in order to jolt the collective conscience of the Muslim community and reveal what he considers to be

11928-530: The Umayyad rule, which they considered to be oppressive, and that they had no rightful leader. They asked him to lead them in revolt against Yazid, promising to remove the Umayyad governor if Husayn would consent to aid them. Husayn wrote back affirmatively that a rightful leader is the one who acts according to the Qur'an and promised to lead them with the right guidance. Then he sent his cousin Muslim ibn Aqil to assess

12096-487: The Umayyads. During the early years of their rule, they also encouraged Muharram rituals. Buyids , a Shi'a dynasty originally from Iran which later occupied the Abbasid capital Baghdad while accepting the Abbasid caliph's suzerainty, promoted the public rituals of Muharram to portray themselves as patrons of religion and to strengthen the Shi'a identity in Iraq. After taking over Iran in 1501, Safavids, who were previously

12264-413: The battle lasted from sunrise to sunset and that the overall account of the battle is reliable. Vaglieri and Madelung explain the length of the battle despite the numerical disparity between the opposing camps as Ibn Sa'd's attempt to prolong the fight and pressure Husayn into submission instead of attempting to quickly overwhelm and kill him. According to Wellhausen, the compassion that Yazid showed to

12432-659: The battle, Husayn's clothes were stripped, and his sword, shoes and baggage were taken. The women's jewelry and cloaks were also seized. Shemr wanted to kill Husayn's only surviving son Ali Zayn al-Abidin , who had not taken part in the fighting because of illness, but was prevented by Ibn Sa'd. There are reports of more than sixty wounds on Husayn's body, which was then trampled with horses as previously instructed by Ibn Ziyad. The bodies of Husayn's companions were decapitated. There were eighty-eight dead in Ibn Sa'd's army, who were buried before he left. After his departure, members of

12600-774: The beginning of May 680, and stayed there until the beginning of September. Husayn had considerable support in Kufa, which had been the caliphal capital during the reigns of his father and brother. The Kufans had fought the Umayyads and their Syrian allies during the First Fitna, the five-year civil war which had established the Umayyad Caliphate. They were dissatisfied with Hasan's abdication and strongly resented Umayyad rule. While in Mecca, Husayn received letters from pro- Alids in Kufa informing him that they were tired of

12768-467: The body of Ali was placed on a camel which was driven from Kufah . The camel stopped a few miles west of the city where the body was secretly buried. No tomb was raised and nobody knew of the burial place except for a few trusted people. It is narrated that more than a hundred years later the Abbasid Caliph, Harun al-Rashid , went deer hunting outside Kufah, and the deer sought sanctuary at

12936-399: The captive women in their lamentation for the dead. After a few days, the women were compensated for their belongings looted in Karbala and were sent back to Medina. A few prominent Alid supporters in Kufa felt guilty for abandoning Husayn after having invited him to revolt. To atone for what they perceived as their sin, they began a movement known as the Tawwabin, under Sulayman ibn Surad ,

13104-528: The center of the Shi‘ite learning and authority, in lieu of Najaf. Najaf lost its religious primacy to Qom, and was not to regain it until the 21st century, during the establishment of a Shī‘ī -majority government in Iraq after 2003. In the 20th century, much of the Old City was rebuilt in a series of modernization initiatives. Beginning in the 1950s, many historic buildings and monuments, including those adjoining

13272-483: The city as the City of Pilgrims project. Najaf, alongside Karbala , is considered a thriving pilgrimage destination for Shia Muslims and the pilgrimage industry in the city boomed after the end of Saddam Hussein's rule. However, due to the U.S. sanctions on Iran , the number of Iranian pilgrims dropped significantly. Since the end of the 2003–2011 war , numerous projects have been proposed for Najaf. The city has become

13440-406: The city is a large treasury kept by the tribune, which arises from the votive offerings arrived from different parts: for when anyone happens to be ill, or suffer under any infirmity, he will make a vow, and thence receive relief. The garden is also famous for its miracles; and hence it is believed that the grave of Ali is there. Of these miracles, the "night of revival" is one: for, on the 17th day of

13608-468: The city leaders fled leaving defense of the city largely to tradespeople. About 3,000 Arabs were killed in the city, and another 2,000 outside the walls (this represented about 15% of the city's normal population). The Turks lost 400 men. This prompted many students and scholars to move to Najaf, which became the main Shia religious centre. Between 1850 and 1903, Karbala enjoyed a generous influx of money through

13776-598: The city suffered from severe water shortages that were only resolved in the early 18th century by building a dam at the head of the Husayniyya Canal. In 1737, the city replaced Isfahan in Iran as the main center of Shia scholarship. In the mid-eighteenth century it was dominated by the dean of scholarship, Yusuf Al Bahrani , a key proponent of the Akhbari tradition of Shia thought, until he died in 1772, after which

13944-501: The city, Sayyed Mahdi Al-Awadi, and cutting off grain supplies to the Anazzah , a tribe allied with the British. In retaliation the British besieged the city and cut off its water supply . The rebellion was put down and the rule of the sheikhs was forcibly ended. A great number of the Shi‘i ‘Ulema’ were expelled into Persia , where they set the foundations for the rise of the city of Qom as

14112-505: The command of Umar ibn Sa'd . He had been appointed governor of Rayy to suppress a local rebellion, but then recalled to confront Husayn. Initially, he was unwilling to fight Husayn, but complied following Ibn Ziyad's threat to revoke his governorship. After negotiations with Husayn, Ibn Sa'd wrote to Ibn Ziyad that Husayn was willing to return. Ibn Ziyad replied that Husayn must surrender or he should be subdued by force, and that to compel him, he and his companions should be denied access to

14280-401: The dead with Imām ‘Alī on Judgement Day . Over the centuries, numerous hospices, schools, libraries and convents were built around the shrine to make the city the center of Shīʻa learning and theology. The An-Najaf seminary, or Hawza Najaf , is one of the most important teaching centres in the Islamic world. Ayatollah Khomeini lectured there from 1965 to 1978. Many of the leading figures of

14448-514: The death of Husayn; the first one by the Tawwabin and the other one by Mukhtar al-Thaqafi and his supporters. The Battle of Karbala galvanized the development of the pro- Alid party ( Shi'at Ali ) into a distinct religious sect with its own rituals and collective memory . It has a central place in Shi'a history, tradition, and theology, and has frequently been recounted in Shi'a literature . For

14616-419: The development of rawda . When Shi'ism became the official religion of Iran in the 16th century, Safavid rulers such as Shah Tahmasp I , patronized poets who wrote about the Battle of Karbala. The genre of marthiya (poems in the memory of the dead, with popular forms of Karbala related marthiya being rawda and nawha ), according to Persian scholar Wheeler Thackston , "was particularly cultivated by

14784-527: The dome of the tomb of Husayn ibn Ali , was destroyed. The fight lasted for 8 hours. After the First Saudi State invasion, the city enjoyed semi-autonomy during Ottoman rule, governed by a group of gangs and mafia variously allied with members of the 'ulama. In order to reassert their authority, the Ottoman army laid siege to the city. On January 13, 1843, Ottoman troops entered the city. Many of

14952-544: The east wind blows dust over them." Shi'a Muslims consider this to be the first instance of wailing and mourning over the death of Husayn. Husayn's son Zayn al-Abideen is reported to have spent the rest of his life weeping for his father. Similarly, Husayn's mother Fatima is believed to be weeping for him in paradise and the weeping of believers is considered to be a way of sharing her sorrows. Special gatherings ( majalis ; sing. majlis ) are arranged in places reserved for this purpose, called husayniyya . In these gatherings

15120-440: The failed rebellion of Muslim ibn Aqil, for which he was imprisoned by Ibn Ziyad, before being released after the intervention of Abd Allah ibn Umar. Mukhtar then went to Mecca and had a short-lived alliance with Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr , who had established himself in Mecca in opposition to Yazid. After Yazid's death, he returned to Kufa where he advocated revenge against Husayn's killers and the establishment of an Alid caliphate in

15288-407: The family of Husayn, and his cursing of Ibn Ziyad was only for show. He argues that if killing Husayn was a crime its responsibility lay with Yazid and not Ibn Ziyad, who was only performing his duty. Madelung holds a similar view; according to him, early accounts place the responsibility for Husayn's death on Ibn Ziyad instead of Yazid. Yazid, Madelung argues, wanted to end Husayn's opposition, but as

15456-473: The fighting so far, joined the battle. Husayn's son Ali Akbar was killed; then Husayn's half-brothers, including Abbas, and the sons of Aqil ibn Abi Talib , Jafar ibn Abi Talib and Hasan ibn Ali were slain. The account of Abbas' death is not given in the primary sources, al-Tabari and Baladhuri , but a prominent Shi'a theologian Shaykh Al-Mufid states in his account in Kitab al-Irshad that Abbas went to

15624-605: The fighting. In 2012, Najaf was named the Cultural Centre of the Arab World. On 6 March 2021, Pope Francis visited the city during his historic papal visit to Iraq and held an interfaith dialogue with al-Sistani, where he expressed a message of peaceful coexistence between Muslims and Christians in the country. Najaf has a hot desert climate , BWh in the Köppen climate classification , with long, very hot summers and mild winters. The average annual temperature

15792-461: The first such visit was performed by Husayn's son Ali Zayn al-Abidin and the surviving family members during their return from Syria to Medina. The first historically recorded visit is Sulayman ibn Surad and the Penitents going to Husayn's grave before their departure to Syria. They are reported to have lamented and beaten their chests and to have spent a night by the tomb. Thereafter this tradition

15960-439: The four dissenters to accede. He followed and threatened some of them with death, but they still refused to support him. Nonetheless, Mu'awiya convinced the people of Mecca that the four had pledged their allegiance, and received allegiance from them for Yazid. On his return to Damascus, he secured allegiance from the people of Medina as well. There was no further overt protest against the plan for Yazid's succession. According to

16128-414: The front only, Ibn Sa'd ordered the tents to be burned. All except the one which Husayn and his family were using were set on fire. Shemr wanted to burn that one too, but was prevented by his companions. The plan backfired and flames hindered the Umayyad advance for a while. After noon prayers, Husayn's companions were encircled, and almost all of them were killed. Husayn's relatives, who had not taken part in

16296-585: The gift to develop the area where the caravan had stopped. The Shah agreed and thus the city developed and came to be known as Najaf Abad . The name literally translates to "City of Najaf" in Persian . Some of the universities located in Najaf include: Najaf in Iraq and Qom in Iran are considered the two main centres of traditional Shia Islamic education today, and both have their own separate administrations and curricula. The Najaf Seminary (Hawza) established in

16464-429: The governor of Medina, where Husayn and several other influential Muslims resided, to announce the decision. Marwan faced resistance to this announcement, especially from Husayn, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr , Abd Allah ibn Umar and Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr , the sons of Muhammad's prominent companions, all of whom, by virtue of their descent, could also lay claim to the caliphal title. Mu'awiya went to Medina and pressed

16632-457: The graves through representations of crosses and stones with Christ-like engravings. There are also relics that date back to the Sassanid period. Also discovered in the excavation was proof of a thriving glass industry. Pots were decorated with the cross. as well as Hebrew writings, indicating a community of religious coexistence." Wadi-us-Salaam in Najaf was a holy cemetery for Jewish and

16800-704: The hands of the British East India Company . The EIC sent the money to Karbala and Najaf per the wives' wishes, in the hopes of influencing the Ulama in Britain's favor. This effort to curry favor is generally considered to have been a failure. In 1915, Karbala was the scene of an uprising against the Ottoman Empire . In 1928, an important drainage project was carried out to relieve the city of unhealthy swamps, formed between Hussainiya and

16968-513: The head of the Banu Hashim clan to which the Islamic prophet Muhammad also belonged. Though his father's supporters in Kufa gave him their allegiance, he would abide to the peace treaty between Hasan and Mu'awiya as long as the latter was alive. The Battle of Karbala occurred within the crisis resulting from the succession of Yazid I . In 676, Mu'awiya nominated his son Yazid as successor,

17136-504: The heavens, and to have killed several thousand Umayyad attackers. Other accounts claim that when Husayn died, his horse shed tears and killed many Umayyad soldiers; the sky became red and it rained blood; angels , jinns and wild animals wept; that light emanated from Husayn's severed head and that it recited the Qur'an; and that all of his killers met calamitous end. Maqtal later entered Persian, Turkish, and Urdu literature, and inspired

17304-487: The historians Fitzpatrick and Walker, Yazid's succession, which was considered as an "anomaly in Islamic history", transformed the government from a "consultative" form to a monarchy. Before his death in April 680, Mu'awiya cautioned Yazid that Husayn and Ibn al-Zubayr might challenge his rule and instructed him to defeat them if they did. Yazid was further advised to treat Husayn with caution and not to spill his blood, since he

17472-459: The land of the Ka'bah and chose it as a sanctuary. Verily it (Karbala) will shine among the gardens of Paradise like a shining star shines among the stars for the people of Earth. Karbala, alongside Najaf , is considered a thriving tourist destination for Shia Muslims and the tourism industry in the city boomed after the end of Saddam Hussein's rule. Some religious tourism attractions include: Arbaeen

17640-477: The legend, Shah Abbas wanted to send a gift containing jewellery and coins to the Shrine of Imam Ali, but as the caravan carrying the gift was traveling towards Najaf it stopped at an area called Dahan near Isfahan , Iran , and refused to move. Following this, Shaykh Baha al-Din , a prominent scholar close to the Shah, relayed to Shah Abbas that Imam Ali himself had manifested to him in a dream and ordered to use

17808-465: The letters and stated that Husayn must go with him to Ibn Ziyad, which Husayn refused to do. Hurr responded that he would not allow Husayn to either enter Kufa or go back to Medina, but that he was free to travel anywhere else he wished. Nevertheless, he did not prevent four Kufans from joining Husayn. Husayn's caravan started to move towards Qadisiyya, and Hurr followed them. At Naynawa, Hurr received orders from Ibn Ziyad to force Husayn's caravan to halt in

17976-577: The man? Kill him, may your mothers be deprived of you!" The Umayyad soldiers then rushed Husayn and wounded him on his hand and shoulder. He fell on the ground face-down and an attacker named Sinan ibn Anas stabbed and then decapitated him. Seventy or seventy-two people died on Husayn's side, of whom about twenty were descendants of Abu Talib , the father of Ali . This included two of Husayn's sons, six of his paternal brothers, three sons of Hasan ibn Ali, three sons of Jafar ibn Abi Talib, and three sons and three grandsons of Aqil ibn Abi Talib. Following

18144-399: The month Rejeb, cripples come from different parts of Fars, Room, Khorasaan, Irak, and other places, assemble in companies from twenty to thirty in number. They are placed over the grave soon after sun-set. People then, some praying, some reciting the Quran, and others prostrating themselves, wait expecting their recovery and rising, when about the night, they all get up sound and right. This is

18312-666: The months of mourning of Muharram and Safar; and are carried in processions and may be buried at the end of Ashura or Arba'een. University of Karbala , which was inaugurated on March 1, 2002, is one of the top most universities in Iraq regarding academic administration, human resources, and scientific research. Ahl al-Bayt University was founded in September 2003 by Dr. Mohsen Baqir Mohammed-Salih Al-Qazwini. The university has six major colleges: College of Law, Arts, Islamic Sciences, Medical & Health Technology, Pharmacy and Dentistry. Warith al-Anbiya University in Karbala, sponsored by

18480-486: The moon like a child. He makes the greatest demands and does not do the slightest; the others should do everything... As soon as he encounters resistance, it is over with him; he wants to go back when it is too late." Lammens has agreed to this view and he sees in Husayn a person who disturbs public peace. According to Heinz Halm , this was a struggle for political leadership between the second generation of Muslims, in which

18648-485: The more state-centric Usuli school became more influential. The Wahhabi sack of Karbala occurred on 21 April 1802 (1216 Hijri) (1801), under the rule of Abdul-Aziz bin Muhammad the second ruler of the First Saudi State , when 12,000 Wahhabi Muslims from Najd attacked the city of Karbala. The attack was coincident with the anniversary of Ghadir Khum event, or 10 Muharram . This fight left 3,000–5,000 deaths and

18816-575: The name of Husayn's half-brother Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya , and declared himself his representative. The defeat of the Tawwabin left the leadership of the Kufan pro-Alids in his hands. In October 685, Mukhtar and his supporters, a significant of number of whom consisted of local converts ( mawali ), overthrew Ibn al-Zubayr's governor and seized Kufa. His control extended to most of Iraq and parts of northwestern Iran. His attitude towards mawali , whom he awarded many favors and equal status with Arabs, provoked

18984-510: The narrative. Baladhuri uses same sources as Tabari. Information on the battle found in the works of Dinawari and Ya'qubi is also based on Abu Mikhnaf's Maqtal , although they occasionally provide some extra notes and verses. Other secondary sources include al-Mas'udi 's Muruj al-Dhahab , Ibn Ath'am 's Kitab al-Futuh , Shaykh al-Mufid's Kitab al-Irshad , and Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani 's Maqatil al-Talibiyyin . Most of these sources took material from Abu Mikhnaf, in addition to some from

19152-479: The new Islamic movement that emerged in Iraq, Iran and Lebanon in the 1970s had studied at Najaf. As of 2014, it was estimated to have about 13,000 students. The fall of the Ba'athist regime ended restrictions on Shi'ite pilgrimage, which led to a pilgrimage boom in Najaf and increased demand for facilities and infrastructure. In 2006, the government sponsored reconstruction of the previously demolished western area of

19320-496: The next morning, so that they could consider the matter. Ibn Sa'd agreed to this respite. Husayn told his men that they were all free to leave, with his family, under the cover of night, since their opponents only wanted him. Very few availed themselves of this opportunity. Defense arrangements were made: tents were brought together and tied to one another and a ditch was dug behind the tents and filled with wood ready to be set alight in case of attack. Husayn and his followers then spent

19488-442: The oppressive and anti-Islamic nature of the Umayyad regime. M. Momen sides with Jafri, citing the reports that Husayn was warned about the collapse of the Shia revolt in Kufa. Instead of changing his course, however, he pressed on toward Kufa, urging his supporters to leave him and save their lives. The killing of the grandson of Muhammad shocked the Muslim community. The image of Yazid suffered and gave rise to sentiment that he

19656-403: The origin of the word Karbala . Some have pointed out that Karbala has a connection to the "Karbalato" language, while others attempt to derive the meaning of word by analyzing its spelling and language. They conclude that it originates from the "Kar Babel" group of ancient Babylonian villages that included Nainawa, Al-Ghadiriyya, Karbella (or Karb Illu), Al-Nawaweess, and Al-Heer. This last name

19824-441: The outcome of his revolt, which was divinely ordained. He is thus remembered as the prince of martyrs ( Sayyed al-Shuhada ). The historian G. R. Hawting describes the Battle of Karbala as a "supreme" example of "suffering and martyrdom" for Shi'as. According to Abdulaziz Sachedina , it is seen by Shi'as the climax of suffering and oppression, revenge for which came to be one of the primary goals of many Shi'a uprisings. This revenge

19992-413: The palm groves and orchards, followed by the salinization of the underground water due to evaporation. During the 18th century, the scholarly life of Najaf came to be dominated by Farsi -speaking ‘ Ulema ’ ( Arabic : عُلُمَاء , Scholars) from Iran . The water shortages were finally resolved in 1803 when the Euphrates made its way to the city once again. The shift in the river's flow was the product of

20160-503: The people who had joined him on the way left, while his companions from Mecca decided to stay with him. Ibn Ziyad had stationed troops on the routes into Kufa. Husayn and his followers were intercepted by the vanguard of Yazid's army, about 1,000 men led by al-Hurr ibn Yazid al-Tamimi , south of Kufa near Qadisiyya . Husayn said to them: I did not come to you until your letters were brought to me, and your messengers came to me saying, 'Come to us, for we have no imām. God may unite us in

20328-530: The phrase, "nay jaff" which means "the nay sea has dried" which gradually changed into "Najaf". "Najaf" is usually accompanied by the adjective "al-Ashraf" (the dignified). According to the author of al-Hawza al-'ilmiyya fi l-Najaf al-ashraf , this is because 'Ali, one of the most dignified persons, is buried in the city. Al-Ghari or al-Ghariyyan, Hadd al-'Adhra', al-Hiwar, al-Judi, Wadi l-Salam, al-Zahr, Zahr al-Kufa (behind Kufa), al-Rabwa, Baniqiya, and Mashhad are other names for this land. The area of An-Najaf

20496-460: The poorly equipped pretender ended up losing. Fred Donner , G. R. Hawting , and Hugh N. Kennedy see Husayn's revolt as an attempt to regain what his brother Hasan had renounced. Vaglieri, on the other hand, considers him to be motivated by ideology, saying that if the materials that have come down to us are authentic, they convey an image of person who is "convinced that he was in the right, stubbornly determined to achieve his ends..." Holding

20664-403: The practice in Iran since 1994. The first political use of the death of Husayn seems to have been during the revolt of Mukhtar, when he seized Kufa under the slogan of "Revenge for Husayn". Although the Penitents had used the same slogan, they do not seem have had a political program. In order to enhance their legitimacy, Abbasid rulers claimed to have avenged the death of Husayn by dethroning

20832-510: The primary sources are Iraqi fabrications, since their writers were dissatisfied with their hero being killed without putting up a fight. This is countered by the historian Laura Veccia Vaglieri , who argues that despite there being some fabricated accounts, all of the contemporary accounts together form "a coherent and credible narrative". She criticizes Lammens' hypothesis as being based on a single isolated report and being devoid of critical analysis. Similarly, Madelung and Wellhausen assert that

21000-502: The primary works of Awana, al-Mada'ini and Nasr ibn Muzahim. Although Tabari and other early sources contain some miraculous stories, these sources are mainly historical and rational in nature, in contrast to the literature of later periods, which is mainly hagiographical in nature. The Battle of Karbala was also reported by an early Christian source. A history by the Syriac Christian scholar Theophilus of Edessa , who

21168-529: The relationship between the state and the public. Throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, Shi’ites in countries such as Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon, have interpreted Husayn's martyrdom at Karbala as symbolic of religious and political resistance against oppression in his era. In these countries, Shi’ites view Husayn as a role model in their daily lives, drawing inspiration for their religious and political resistance against perceived anti-Shia forces, whether domestic or international. Karbala and Shi'a symbolism played

21336-594: The repression of the Shia population by the Ottomans in 1843 both played a significant role in the relocation of many scholars to the city of Najaf and thus Najaf subsequently became the center of Shia Islamic leadership and education. Today the Hawza Seminary still exists in Karbala (such as the School of Allamah Bin Fahd) but to a lesser extent in comparison to Najaf. Airports in Karbala include: In February 2024,

21504-451: The rest of the night praying. After the morning prayer on 10 October, both parties took up battle positions. Husayn appointed Zuhayr ibn Qayn to command the right flank of his army, Habib ibn Muzahir to command the left flank, and his half-brother Abbas as the standard bearer. Husayn's companions, according to most accounts, numbered thirty-two horsemen and forty infantrymen; although forty-five horsemen and one hundred foot-soldiers, or

21672-435: The river together with Husayn but became separated, was surrounded, and killed. At some point, a young child of Husayn's, who was sitting on his lap, was hit by an arrow and died. The Umayyad soldiers hesitated to attack Husayn directly, but he was struck in the mouth by an arrow as he went to the river to drink. He collected his blood in a cupped hand and cast towards the sky, complaining to God of his suffering. Later, he

21840-622: The sanctuary, and decided to go ahead with his plan. Husayn left Mecca with some fifty men and his family on 9 September 680 (8 Dhu al-Hijjah 60 AH), a day before Hajj . He took the northerly route through the Arabian Desert . On persuasion of Husayn's cousin Abd Allah ibn Ja'far , the governor of Mecca Amr ibn Sa'id sent his brother and Ibn Ja'far after Husayn in order to assure him safety in Mecca and bring him back. Husayn refused to return, relating that Muhammad had ordered him in

22008-456: The second category. According to Julius Wellhausen , most of them regretted their actions in the battle and embellished the accounts of the battle in favor of Husayn in order to dilute their guilt. Although as an Iraqi, Abu Mikhnaf had pro-Alid tendencies, his reports generally do not contain much bias on his part. Abu Mikhnaf's original text seems to have been lost and the version extant today has been transmitted through secondary sources such as

22176-435: The shrine, were demolished for the construction of Sadeq, Zainulabidin, Rasool and Tousi streets. In 1958, the city wall was torn down and replaced with a ring road . In the 1980s, the entire area between the shrine and the city's western edge was demolished, and the residents resettled outside the city, in what locals perceived as a government reprisal for the Shia uprising under the leadership of Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr , who

22344-411: The situation in Kufa. Ibn Aqil attracted widespread support and informed Husayn of the situation, suggesting that he join them there. Yazid removed Nu'man ibn Bashir al-Ansari as governor of Kufa due to his inaction, and installed Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad , then governor of Basra , in his place. As a result of Ibn Ziyad's suppression and political maneuvering, Ibn Aqil's following began to dissipate and he

22512-473: The start of the 16th century. When the Portuguese traveller Pedro Texeira passed through Najaf in 1604, he found the city in ruins, inhabited by little more than 500 people. This was largely the result of a change in the course of the Euphrates river eastwards in the direction of Hilla , leaving Najaf and Kufa high and dry, leading to the destruction of the local formerly rich agriculture, demise of

22680-427: The story of Karbala is narrated and various elegies ( rawda ) are recited by professional reciters ( rawda khwan ). During the month of Muharram, elaborate public processions are performed in commemoration of the Battle of Karbala. In contrast to pilgrimage to Husayn's tomb and simple lamenting, these processions do not date back to the time of the battle, but arose during tenth century. Their earliest recorded instance

22848-448: The struggle. Their slogan was "Revenge for Husayn". Mukhtar al-Thaqafi, another prominent pro-Alid of Kufa, attempted to dissuade the Tawwabin from this endeavor in favor of an organized movement to take control of the city, but Ibn Surad's stature as a companion of Muhammad and an old ally of Ali, prevented most of his followers from accepting Mukhtar's proposal. Although 16,000 men enlisted to fight, only 4,000 mustered . In November 684,

23016-434: The surviving members of Husayn's family from prison as there was a threat of uprisings and some of the people in his court were unaware of who the battle was with, when they got to know that the descendants of Muhammad were killed, they were horrified. On their way to Mecca, they stopped at the site of the battle. There is a record of Sulayman ibn Surad going on pilgrimage to the site as early as 65 AH (685 AD). The city began as

23184-455: The tenth day, although majalis can also occur throughout the year. Occasionally, especially in the past, some Sunni participation in majalis and processions has been observed. According to Yitzhak Nakash , the rituals of Muharram have an "important" effect in the "invoking the memory of Karbala", as these help consolidate the collective identity and memory of the Shi'a community. Anthropologist Michael Fischer states that commemoration of

23352-516: The tents, ran to him, tried to defend him from a sword stroke and had his arm cut off. Ibn Sa'd approached the tents, and Husayn's sister Zaynab complained to him: "'Umar b. Sa'd, will Abu 'Abd Allah (the kunya of Husayn) be killed while you stand and watch?" Ibn Sa'd wept but did nothing. Husayn is said to have killed many of his attackers. They were, however, still unwilling to kill him and each of them wanted to leave this to somebody else. Eventually Shemr shouted: "Shame on you! Why are you waiting for

23520-456: The townspeople of Medina declared Ali , a cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , caliph. Some of Muhammad's companions including Talha ibn Ubayd Allah , Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan (then governor of Syria ), and Muhammad's widow A'isha , refused to recognize Ali. They called for revenge against Uthman's killers and the election of a new caliph through shura (consultation). These events precipitated

23688-464: The truth through you.' Since this was your view, I have come to you. Therefore, if you give me what you guaranteed in your covenants and sworn testimonies, I will come to your town. If you will not and are averse to my coming, I will leave you for the place from which I came to you. He then showed them the letters he had received from the Kufans, including some in Hurr's force. Hurr denied any knowledge of

23856-424: The two, but Ibn al-Zubayr escaped to Mecca. Husayn answered the summons but declined to pledge allegiance in the secretive environment of the meeting, suggesting it should be done in public. Marwan told Walid to imprison or behead him, but due to Husayn's kinship with Muhammad, Walid was unwilling to take any action against him. A few days later, Husayn left for Mecca without acknowledging Yazid. He arrived in Mecca at

24024-439: The vicinity for Christians. The centuries following have proven this to also be a city with a multicultural and religious people. Mohammed al-Mayali, director of Inspectorate Effects of the province of Najaf, states "the excavation on the graves, which we have been working on for years, confirm that "Najaf" contains the largest Christian cemetery in Iraq, with a cemetery area of 1416 acres. We have found indications of Christianity on

24192-417: The way of God. Shi'ites believe that Karbala is one of the holiest places on Earth according to the following traditions (among others): Karbala, where your grandson and his family will be martyred, is one of the most blessed and the most sacred lands on Earth, and it is one of the valleys of Paradise. God chose the land of Karbalā' as a safe and blessed sanctuary twenty-four thousand years before He created

24360-432: The work of the Kufan historian Abu Mikhnaf titled Kitab Maqtal Al-Husayn . Other early monographs on the death of Husayn, which have not survived, were written by al-Asbagh al-Nubata, Jabir ibn Yazid al-Ju'fi, Ammar ibn Mu'awiya al-Duhni, Awana ibn al-Hakam , al-Waqidi , Hisham ibn al-Kalbi , Nasr ibn Muzahim, and al-Mada'ini ; of these al-Nubta's monograph was perhaps the earliest. Although Abu Mikhnaf's date of birth

24528-515: Was Najaf called at that time Baniqia, and could be this is the first name of Najaf area. The name Baniqia also was found in some texts which tell that in one day Abraham visited this village and stayed couple of days, then he continued in his journey from Mesopotamia to Arabia. In Islam , the city is considered to have started with Ali who instructed that his burial place should remain a secret, as he had many enemies and he feared that his body might be subjected to some indignity. According to legend,

24696-611: Was an ideology of revolution and political struggle against tyranny and exploitation, and the Battle of Karbala and the death of Husayn was to be seen as a model for revolutionary struggle; weeping and mourning was to be replaced by political activism to realize the ideals of Husayn. After the White Revolution reforms of the Iranian Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , which were opposed by the Iranian clergy and others, Ruhollah Khomeini labelled

24864-580: Was based in the neighborhood. During the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq , Najaf was a key target of the invading United States Forces . The city was encircled during heavy fighting on 26 March 2003 and was captured on 3 April 2003 ( Battle of Najaf ). The clerical authorities of the Shī‘ī enclave of Sadr City in Baghdad , which claimed autonomy in April 2003, after the fall of Baghdad , claimed to be taking their orders from senior clerics in Najaf. On 4 April 2004,

25032-493: Was called Meshhed Ali. As Translated by Samuel Lee , Ibn Battuta in his Arabic Rihla relates: We next proceeded to the city of Meshhed Ali where the grave of Ali ibn Abu Talib is thought to be. It is a handsome place and well peopled. There is no governor here, except a sort of tribune. The inhabitants consist chiefly of rich and brave merchants. About the gardens are plastered walls adorned with paintings, and within them are carpets, couches and lamps of gold and silver. Within

25200-697: Was chief astrologer in the Abbasid court between 775 and 785, is partially preserved in a number of extant Christian chronicles, including those by Michael the Syrian and the Byzantine historian Theophanes the Confessor . Theophilus's history corroborates the death in battle of Husayn and most of his men at Karbala after suffering from thirst. But in contrast to all Muslim sources, which state that Husayn fought Yazid, Theophilus appears to have written that Husayn

25368-420: Was contested by the sons of a few prominent companions of Muhammad, including Husayn, son of the fourth caliph Ali , and Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr , son of Zubayr ibn al-Awwam . Upon Mu'awiya's death in 680, Yazid demanded allegiance from Husayn and other dissidents. Husayn did not give allegiance and traveled to Mecca . The people of Kufa , an Iraqi garrison town and the center of Ali's caliphate, were averse to

25536-400: Was determined, not to take women and children with him. The sincerity of Ibn al-Zubayr's advice has been doubted by many historians, however, as he had his own plans for leadership and was supposedly happy to be rid of Husayn. Nevertheless, he offered Husayn support if he would stay in Mecca and lead the opposition to Yazid from there. Husayn refused this, citing his abhorrence of bloodshed in

25704-531: Was established after the revolution has since promoted Muharram rituals. The clerics encourage public participation in elections as a form of "political activism" comparable to that of Husayn. Martyrdom spirit influenced by the death of Husayn was frequently witnessed in Iranian troops during the Iran–Iraq war . Lebanese Shi'ite organization Hezbollah compared Husayn's fight against those who tried to kill him and his family to Hezbollah’s conflicts with Israel and

25872-439: Was forced to declare the revolt prematurely. It was defeated and Ibn Aqil was killed. Husayn had also sent a messenger to Basra, another garrison town in Iraq, but the messenger could not attract any following and was quickly apprehended and executed. Husayn was unaware of the change of political circumstances in Kufa and decided to depart. Abd Allah ibn Abbas and Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr advised him not to move to Iraq, or if he

26040-511: Was fought on 10 October 680 (10 Muharram in the year 61 AH of the Islamic calendar ) between the army of the second Umayyad caliph Yazid I ( r.  680–683 ) and a small army led by Husayn ibn Ali , the grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , at Karbala , Sawad (modern-day southern Iraq ). Prior to his death, the Umayyad caliph Mu'awiya I ( r.  661–680 ) had nominated his son Yazid as his successor. Yazid's nomination

26208-477: Was impious. The event has had an emotional impact on Sunnis, who remember the event as a tragic incident and those killed in the company of Husayn as martyrs. The impact on Shi'a Islam has been much deeper. Prior to the Battle of Karbala, the Muslim community was divided into two political factions. Nonetheless, a religious sect with distinct theological doctrines and specific set of rituals had not developed. Karbala gave this early political party of pro-Alids

26376-513: Was in Baghdad in 963 during the reign of the first Buyid ruler Mu'izz al-Dawla . The processions start from a husayniyya and the participants parade barefoot through the streets, wailing and beating their chests and heads before returning to the husayniyya for a majlis . Sometimes, chains and knives are used to inflict wounds and physical pain. In South Asia , an ornately tacked horse called zuljanah , representing Husayn's battle horse,

26544-403: Was killed by Muawiyah as the final engagement of the First Fitna between the Umayyads and Ali's supporters. Based on an official report sent to caliph Yazid, which describes the battle very briefly, stating that it lasted for no longer than a siesta , Lammens concludes that there was no battle at all but a quick massacre that was over in an hour; he suggests that the detailed accounts found in

26712-421: Was limited to the Shi'a imams for several decades, before gaining momentum under the sixth Shi'a imam Jafar Sadiq and his followers. Buyids and Safavids also encouraged this practice. Special visits are paid on 10 Muharram ( Ashura Pilgrimage) and 40 days after the anniversary of Husayn's ( Arba'een Pilgrimage ). The soil of Karbala is considered to have miraculous healing effects. Mourning for Husayn

26880-571: Was one of the reasons behind his failure, as Kufa was not ready for such "revolutionary measures". Mukhtar's supporters survived the collapse of his revolution and evolved into a sect known as the Kaysanites . The Hashimiyya, a splinter group of the Kaysanites, was later taken over by the Abbasids and eventually overthrew the Umayyads in 750. The primary source of the Karbala narrative is

27048-482: Was persuaded to push forward by Ibn Aqil's brothers, who wanted to avenge his death; according to Madelung and I. K. A. Howard, these reports are doubtful. Later, at Zubala, Husayn learned of the capture and execution of his messenger Qays ibn Musahir al-Saydawi , whom he had sent from the Hejaz (western Arabia) to Kufa to announce his arrival. He informed his followers of the situation and asked them to leave. Most of

27216-575: Was slain. Meanwhile, Mukhtar's relations with Ibn al-Zubayr worsened and Kufan refugees in Basra persuaded Mus'ab ibn al-Zubayr , the governor of the city and younger brother of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, to attack Kufa. Facing defeat in open battle, Mukhtar and his remaining supporters took refuge in the palace of Kufa and were besieged by Mus'ab. Four months later, in April 687, Mukhtar was killed while some 6,000–8,000 of his supporters were executed. According to Mohsen Zakeri, Mukhtar's attitude towards mawali

27384-455: Was surrounded and struck on the head by Malik ibn Nusayr. The blow cut through his hooded cloak, which Husayn removed while cursing his attacker. He put a cap on his head and wrapped a turban around it to staunch the bleeding. Ibn Nusayr seized the bloodied cloak and retreated. Shemr advanced with a group of foot soldiers towards Husayn, who was now prepared to fight as few people were left on his side. A young boy from Husayn's camp escaped from

27552-477: Was the consolidation and spread of Shi'ism. As the shrine city of Najaf gained access to water again, its notables and holy men began to wield considerable power in the area. In 1811, the last city wall was rebuilt. The Ottomans were expelled in an uprising in 1915, following which the city fell under the rule of the British Empire . The sheikhs of Najaf rebelled in 1918, killing the British governor of

27720-476: Was the grandson of Muhammad. On his succession, Yazid charged the governor of Medina, al-Walid ibn Utba ibn Abu Sufyan , to secure allegiance from Husayn, Ibn al-Zubayr and Abd Allah ibn Umar, with force if necessary. Walid sought the advice of his Umayyad relative Marwan ibn al-Hakam, who suggested that Ibn al-Zubayr and Husayn should be forced to pledge allegiance as they were dangerous, while Ibn Umar should be left alone since he posed no threat. Walid summoned

27888-421: Was told that first he had to submit to Yazid's authority, which he refused to do. Husayn's speech moved Al-Hurr ibn Yazid Al-Tamimi to defect to his side. After Husayn's speech, Zuhayr ibn Qayn attempted to dissuade Ibn Sa'd's soldiers from killing Husayn, but in vain. Ibn Sa'd's army fired several volleys of arrows. This was followed by duels in which several of Husayn's companions were slain. The right wing of

28056-418: Was unwilling to carry out the attack, he was instructed to hand over command to Shemr. Ibn Sa'd cursed Shemr and accused him of foiling his attempts to reach a peaceful settlement but agreed to carry out the orders. He remarked that Husayn would not submit because there was "a proud soul in him". The army advanced toward Husayn's camp on the evening of 9 October. Husayn sent Abbas to ask Ibn Sa'd to wait until

28224-678: Was written in 1502 by Husain Wa'iz Kashefi. Kashefi's composition was an effective factor in the development of rawda khwani , a ritual recounting of the battle events in majalis . Inspired by Rawdat al-Shuhada , the Azerbaijani poet Fuzûlî wrote an abridged and simplified version of it in Ottoman Turkish in his work Hadiqat al-Su'ada . It influenced similar works in Albanian on the subject. Dalip Frashëri 's Kopshti i te Mirevet

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