Screenwriting or scriptwriting is the art and craft of writing scripts for mass media such as feature films , television productions or video games . It is often a freelance profession.
53-514: Kenji Terada ( 寺田 憲史 , Terada Kenji , born 11 July 1952) is a Japanese scenario writer , anime director, series organizer and novelist . His more notable works include writing the first three games of the Final Fantasy series. He also worked on Batman: Dark Tomorrow , created the concept for the Sega CD game Dark Wizard , and was the series organizer and main script writer for
106-416: A screenplay used during the production of a film or video. It provides a plan for what footage to shoot to help tell the story. Shooting scripts are distinct from spec scripts in that they make use of scene numbers (along with certain other formatting conventions described below), and they follow a well-defined set of procedures specifying how script revisions should be implemented and circulated. When
159-409: A studio , production company, or producer. These are the most common assignments sought after in screenwriting. A screenwriter can get an assignment either exclusively or from "open" assignments. A screenwriter can also be approached and offered an assignment. Assignment scripts are generally adaptations of an existing idea or property owned by the hiring company, but can also be original works based on
212-633: A tag , an epilogue after the action in Act 3. Here is a chronological list of the major plot points that are congruent with Field's Paradigm: The sequence approach to screenwriting, sometimes known as " eight-sequence structure ", is a system developed by Frank Daniel , while he was the head of the Graduate Screenwriting Program at USC . It is based in part on the fact that, in the early days of cinema, technical matters forced screenwriters to divide their stories into sequences, each
265-413: A basic premise and setting that creates a story engine that can drive individual episodes, subplots, and developments. Television show creators write the television pilot and bible of new television series. They are responsible for creating and managing all aspects of a show's characters, style, and plots. Frequently, a creator remains responsible for the show's day-to-day creative decisions throughout
318-404: A concept created by the writer or producer. Most produced films are rewritten to some extent during the development process. Frequently, they are not rewritten by the original writer of the script. Many established screenwriters, as well as new writers whose work shows promise but lacks marketability, make their living rewriting scripts. When a script's central premise or characters are good but
371-489: A contract to write one or more episodes for an existing television show. After an episode is submitted, rewriting or polishing may be required. A staff writer for a TV show generally works in-house, writing and rewriting episodes. Staff writers—often given other titles, such as story editor or producer —work both as a group and individually on episode scripts to maintain the show's tone, style, characters, and plots. Serialized television series will typically have
424-601: A finished product for the enjoyment of its audience. For this reason, a screenplay is written using technical jargon and tight, spare prose when describing stage directions. Unlike a novel or short story , a screenplay focuses on describing the literal, visual aspects of the story, rather than on the internal thoughts of its characters. In screenwriting, the aim is to evoke those thoughts and emotions through subtext, action, and symbolism . Most modern screenplays, at least in Hollywood and related screen cultures, are written in
477-401: A much shorter third act than is found in most screenwriting theories. Besides the three-act structure, it is also common to use a four- or five-act structure in a screenplay, and some screenplays may include as many as twenty separate acts. The hero's journey , also referred to as the monomyth , is an idea formulated by noted mythologist Joseph Campbell . The central concept of the monomyth
530-543: A new page 45 will be issued with the word "OMITTED" as the absence of a page 45 might look like an error. Revision pages are distributed on colored paper, a different color for each set of revisions, with each changed line marked by an asterisk in the right margin of the page. The progression of colors varies from one production to the next, but a typical sequence would be: white, blue, pink, yellow, green, goldenrod, buff, salmon, cherry, tan, ivory, white (this time known as "double white"), and back to blue ("double blue"). When
583-415: A new scene is to be inserted between scenes 10 and 11, the new scene will be numbered 10A. Where it is necessary to insert a scene between 10 and 10A – this scene is then numbered 10aA. A scene between 10A and 11 would be numbered 10B . A scene between 10A and 10B would be numbered 10AA. Every scene thus retains its own unique number throughout the course of the production. When a scene is omitted, its number
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#1732776551199636-522: A new scene is to be inserted between scenes 10 and 11, the new scene will be numbered A11 (and not 10A as "10A" would refer to setup "A" of scene 10, when using the American slating system – see slating procedures ). For some productions, it may be necessary to insert a scene between 10 and A11 – this scene is then numbered AA11. A scene between A11 and 11 would be numbered B11. A scene between A11 and B11 would be numbered AB11. For UK production standards if
689-425: A producer to create a screenplay from a concept, true story, existing screen work or literary work, such as a novel, poem, play, comic book, or short story. The act of screenwriting takes many forms across the entertainment industry. Often, multiple writers work on the same script at different stages of development with different tasks. Over the course of a successful career, a screenwriter might be hired to write in
742-413: A sample by the writer on his or her own; what is forbidden is writing a script for a specific producer without a contract. In addition to writing a script on speculation, it is generally not advised to write camera angles or other directional terminology, as these are likely to be ignored. A director may write up a shooting script themselves, a script that guides the team in what to do in order to carry out
795-450: A screenplay is approved for production, the scenes are assigned numbers which are included in the script alongside the scene headers . The numbers provide a convenient way for the various production departments to reference individual scenes. Also each individual shot within a scene is also assigned numbers. After a shooting script has been widely circulated, page numbers are locked, and any revisions are distributed on revision pages. Thus
848-428: A style known as the master-scene format or master-scene script . The format is characterized by six elements, presented in the order in which they are most likely to be used in a script: Scripts written in master-scene format are divided into scenes: "a unit of story that takes place at a specific location and time". Scene headings (or slugs) indicate the location the following scene is to take place in, whether it
901-475: A team of writers as part of a specific format. This may involve the slate of questions and even specific phrasing or dialogue on the part of the host. Writers may not script the dialogue used by the contestants, but they work with the producers to create the actions, scenarios, and sequence of events that support the game show's concept. With the continued development and increased complexity of video games, many opportunities are available to employ screenwriters in
954-439: A wide variety of roles. Some of the most common forms of screenwriting jobs include: Spec scripts are feature film or television show scripts written without the commission of, but is on speculation of sale to a film studio , production company , or TV network. The content is usually invented solely by the screenwriter, however spec screenplays can also be based on established works or real people and events. The spec script
1007-406: Is a Hollywood sales tool with the vast majority of scripts written each year are spec scripts, but only a small percentage make it to the screen. Though a spec script is usually a wholly original work, it can also be an adaptation . In television writing, a spec script is a sample teleplay written to demonstrate the writer's knowledge of a show and ability to imitate its style and conventions. It
1060-450: Is discouraged. Dialogue blocks are offset from the page's margin by 3.7" and are left-justified. Dialogue spoken by two characters at the same time is written side by side and is conventionally known as dual-dialogue. The final element is the scene transition and is used to indicate how the current scene should transition into the next. It is generally assumed that the transition will be a cut, and using "CUT TO:" will be redundant. Thus
1113-401: Is distributed along with a title page that includes a list of the revision slugs for every set of revisions distributed thus far. Script revisions are marked with asterisks in the right hand margins of the revision pages. When many revision marks are present on a single page, or within a single paragraph or scene, the marks may be consolidated into a single mark. For example, if all the lines in
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#17327765511991166-753: Is given only if 50% or more of the script is substantially changed. These standards can make it difficult to establish the identity and number of screenwriters who contributed to a film's creation. When established writers are called in to rewrite portions of a script late in the development process, they are commonly referred to as script doctors . Prominent script doctors include Christopher Keane, Steve Zaillian , William Goldman , Robert Towne , Mort Nathan , Quentin Tarantino , Carrie Fisher , and Peter Russell. Many up-and-coming screenwriters work as ghostwriters. A freelance television writer typically uses spec scripts or previous credits and reputation to obtain
1219-412: Is interior or exterior, and the time-of-day it appears to be. Conventionally, they are capitalized, and may be underlined or bolded. In production drafts, scene headings are numbered. Next are action lines, which describe stage direction and are generally written in the present tense with a focus only on what can be seen or heard by the audience. Character names are in all caps, centered in the middle of
1272-412: Is preserved in the script along with the phrase (OMITTED). This effectively retires the number so that it cannot be reused by a new scene inserted later at the same location. A scene can also be unomitted, effectively bringing the retired scene out of retirement. Page numbers in a shooting script are handled in a similar way. When revision pages are distributed, the page numbers must flow sequentially into
1325-438: Is retained on each page to maintain the original page numbering, ie 14 as is, 15 half blank, 16 half blank, 17 as is. A slug (header) appears at the top of every revision page, aligned vertically with the page number. The revision slug typically includes the date the revisions were circulated, the color of the pages in parentheses, and usually, the name of the production or some other descriptive information. Every set of revisions
1378-463: Is submitted to the show's producers in hopes of being hired to write future episodes of the show. Budding screenwriters attempting to break into the business generally begin by writing one or more spec scripts. Although writing spec scripts is part of any writer's career, the Writers Guild of America forbids members to write "on speculation". The distinction is that a spec script is written as
1431-449: Is that a pattern can be seen in stories and myths across history. Campbell defined and explained that pattern in his book The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1949). Campbell's insight was that important myths from around the world, which have survived for thousands of years, all share a fundamental structure. This fundamental structure contains a number of stages, which include: Later, screenwriter Christopher Vogler refined and expanded
1484-426: Is written by a hired writer. The concept is usually developed long before the screenwriter is brought on, and often has multiple writers work on it before the script is given a green light . The plot development is usually based on highly successful novels, plays, TV shows, and even video games, and the rights to which have been legally acquired. Scripts written on assignment are screenplays created under contract with
1537-648: The Kimagure Orange Road series among other things. Kenji Terada was born in Tokyo, Japan. He graduated in 1973 from Waseda University with a degree in European History. During his degree, Terada did illustrations for newspapers and magazines, worked on film sets, and did some work as an animator. In 1978, he became an assistant for artist Osamu Tezuka , and in 1980 he became a freelance writer and director for various projects, including writing
1590-400: The assistant director believes that there are more changed pages than are worth swapping out, the script coordinator may issue an entirely fresh script in the appropriate revision color. In some cases, usually before the start of principal photography, an entirely new "white draft" will be distributed in lieu of colored revision pages. The pages in a white draft are renumbered from scratch, while
1643-406: The director's vision of how the script should look. The director may ask the original writer to co-write it with them or to rewrite a script that satisfies both the director and producer of the film/TV show. Spec writing is also unique in that the writer must pitch the idea to producers. In order to sell the script, it must have an excellent title, good writing, and a great logline , laying out what
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1696-413: The element should be used sparingly to indicate a different kind of transition such as "DISSOLVE TO:". Screenwriting applications such as Final Draft (software) , Celtx , Fade In (software) , Slugline, Scrivener (software) , and Highland, allow writers to easily format their script to adhere to the requirements of the master screen format. Shooting script A shooting script is the version of
1749-434: The end of the movie. Motivation exists on outer and inner levels. Motivation alone is not sufficient to make the screenplay work. There must be something preventing the hero from getting what he or she wants. That something is conflict. Fundamentally, the screenplay is a unique literary form. It is like a musical score, in that it is intended to be interpreted on the basis of other artists' performance, rather than serving as
1802-457: The field of video game design . Video game writers work closely with the other game designers to create characters, scenarios, and dialogue. Several main screenwriting theories help writers approach the screenplay by systematizing the structure, goals and techniques of writing a script. The most common kinds of theories are structural. Screenwriter William Goldman is widely quoted as saying "Screenplays are structure". According to this approach,
1855-418: The hero's journey for the screenplay form in his book, The Writer's Journey: Mythic Structure for Writers (1993). Syd Field introduced a new theory he called "the paradigm". He introduced the idea of a plot point into screenwriting theory and defined a plot point as "any incident, episode, or event that hooks into the action and spins it around in another direction". These are the anchoring pins of
1908-411: The length of a reel (about ten minutes). The sequence approach mimics that early style. The story is broken up into eight 10-15 minute sequences. The sequences serve as "mini-movies", each with their own compressed three-act structure. The first two sequences combine to form the film's first act. The next four create the film's second act. The final two sequences complete the resolution and dénouement of
1961-502: The middle act is actually two acts in one. So, the three-act structure is notated 1, 2a, 2b, 3, resulting in Aristotle’s three acts being divided into four pieces of approximately thirty pages each. Field defined two plot points near the middle of Acts 2a and 2b, called pinch I and pinch II , occurring around pages 45 and 75 of the screenplay, respectively, whose functions are to keep the action on track, moving it forward, either toward
2014-440: The midpoint or plot point II. Sometimes there is a relationship between pinch I and pinch II: some kind of story connection. According to Field, the inciting incident occurs near the middle of Act 1, so-called because it sets the story into motion and is the first visual representation of the key incident. The inciting incident is also called the dramatic hook , because it leads directly to plot point I. Field referred to
2067-420: The movie is about. A well-written logline will convey the tone of the film, introduce the main character, and touch on the primary conflict. Usually the logline and title work in tandem to draw people in, and it is highly suggested to incorporate irony into them when possible. These things, along with nice, clean writing will hugely impact whether or not a producer picks up a spec script. A commissioned screenplay
2120-417: The original scene numbers are maintained. When revisions are made to a shooting script, they must be accomplished in a way that does not disturb the pre-existing scene numbers. Changes made to scene numbers are to be reflected before the original scene number, as what follow a scene number identifies a specific setup within the scene actually shot during production. For example: For US production standards if
2173-449: The page, and indicate that a character is speaking the following dialogue. Characters who are speaking off-screen or in voice-over are indicated by the suffix (O.S.) and (V.O) respectively. Parentheticals provide stage direction for the dialogue that follows. Most often this is to indicate how dialogue should be performed (for example, angry) but can also include small stage directions (for example, picking up vase). Overuse of parentheticals
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2226-414: The pre-existing page numbers. For example, if page 10 is revised such that it now occupies a page and a half, the revisions will be distributed on two pages numbered 10 and 10A. These two pages will replace page 10 in the outstanding drafts. Conversely, if pages 15 and 16 are shortened such that they now can occupy a single page, the revisions will be distributed on a single page numbered 15-16, or blank space
2279-408: The production office might issue a revision containing new pages 3, 9, 17 and 45. This avoids having to print and distribute an entirely new draft for every set of revisions, which would entail crew members having to transfer all their handwritten notes to a new script. If scenes on page 45 become longer, they will be continued on new pages 45A, 45B and so on; if the scenes on page 45 are all eliminated,
2332-520: The role of the mid-level writer, relying on the senior writers to do rough outlines and giving the other writers a bit more freedom. Regardless, when the finished scripts are sent to the top writers, the latter do a final round of rewrites. Espenson also notes that a show that airs daily, with characters who have decades of history behind their voices, necessitates a writing staff without the distinctive voice that can sometimes be present in prime-time series. Game shows feature live contestants, but still use
2385-442: The script is otherwise unusable, a different writer or team of writers is contracted to do an entirely new draft, often referred to as a "page one rewrite". When only small problems remain, such as bad dialogue or poor humor, a writer is hired to do a "polish" or "punch-up". Depending on the size of the new writer's contributions, screen credit may or may not be given. For instance, in the American film industry, credit to rewriters
2438-632: The scripts for Baoh , Dirty Pair , and Kimagure Orange Road . He also did some work for Square , writing the scripts for the first three Final Fantasy video games. He remained a script writer for films and animation until 2003, when he served as both the writer and director for the video game Batman: Dark Tomorrow , as well as the director for the Firestorm anime series. He has since worked on Robotech: The Shadow Chronicles as well as several other shows and video games. Screenwriting Screenwriters are responsible for researching
2491-411: The series run as showrunner , head writer , or story editor. The process of writing for soap operas and telenovelas is different from that used by prime time shows, due in part to the need to produce new episodes five days a week for several months. In one example cited by Jane Espenson , screenwriting is a "sort of three-tiered system": Espenson notes that a recent trend has been to eliminate
2544-419: The setup. In Writing Drama , French writer and director Yves Lavandier shows a slightly different approach. As do most theorists, he maintains that every human action, whether fictitious or real, contains three logical parts: before the action, during the action, and after the action. But since the climax is part of the action, Lavandier maintains that the second act must include the climax, which makes for
2597-426: The story is about. In a 120-page screenplay, Act 2 is about sixty pages in length, twice the length of Acts 1 and 3. Field noticed that in successful movies, an important dramatic event usually occurs at the middle of the picture, around page sixty. The action builds up to that event, and everything afterward is the result of that event. He called this event the centerpiece or midpoint . This suggested to him that
2650-422: The story line, which hold everything in place. There are many plot points in a screenplay, but the main ones that anchor the story line in place and are the foundation of the dramatic structure, he called plot points I and II . Plot point I occurs at the end of Act 1; plot point II at the end of Act 2. Plot point I is also called the key incident because it is the true beginning of the story and, in part, what
2703-428: The story, developing the narrative, writing the script, screenplay, dialogues and delivering it, in the required format, to development executives. Screenwriters therefore have great influence over the creative direction and emotional impact of the screenplay and, arguably, of the finished film. Screenwriters either pitch original ideas to producers, in the hope that they will be optioned or sold; or are commissioned by
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#17327765511992756-410: The story. Each sequence's resolution creates the situation which sets up the next sequence. Michael Hauge divides primary characters into four categories. A screenplay may have more than one character in any category. Secondary characters are all the other people in the screenplay and should serve as many of the functions above as possible. Motivation is whatever the character hopes to accomplish by
2809-421: The three acts are: the setup (of the setting, characters, and mood), the confrontation (with obstacles), and the resolution (culminating in a climax and a dénouement). In a two-hour film, the first and third acts each last about thirty minutes, with the middle act lasting about an hour, but nowadays many films begin at the confrontation point and segue immediately to the setup or begin at the resolution and return to
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