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50-536: Poa pratensis , commonly known as Kentucky bluegrass (or blue grass ), smooth meadow-grass , or common meadow-grass , is a perennial species of grass native to practically all of Europe , North Asia and the mountains of Algeria and Morocco . There is disagreement about its native status in North America , with some sources considering it native and others stating the Spanish Empire brought

100-443: A century plant can live for 80 years and grow 30 meters tall before flowering and dying. However, most perennials are polycarpic (or iteroparous ), flowering over many seasons in their lifetime. Perennials invest more resources than annuals into roots, crowns, and other structures that allow them to live from one year to the next. They often have a competitive advantage because they can commence their growth and leaf out earlier in

150-940: A photolyase and the other, a protein involved in nucleotide excision repair ). Perennials that are cultivated include: woody plants like fruit trees grown for their edible fruits; shrubs and trees grown as landscaping ornamentals ; herbaceous food crops like asparagus , rhubarb , strawberries ; and subtropical plants not hardy in colder areas such as tomatoes , eggplant , and coleus (which are treated as annuals in colder areas). Perennials also include plants grown for their flowering and other ornamental value including bulbs (like tulips, narcissus, and gladiolus); lawn grass, and other groundcovers , (such as periwinkle and Dichondra ). Each type of plant must be separated differently; for example, plants with fibrous root systems like daylilies, Siberian iris, or grasses can be pried apart with two garden forks inserted back to back, or cut by knives. However, plants such as bearded irises have

200-625: A common invasive weed across cool moist temperate climates like the Pacific Northwest and the Northeastern United States . When found on native grasslands in Canada , for example, it is considered an unwelcome exotic plant , and is indicative of a disturbed and degraded landscape. Poa pratensis was one of the many species described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark work Species Plantarum in 1753. Poa

250-578: A farming community with ample access to dairy , would have had no reason to be deficient in vitamin A . Therefore, an outbreak of ergotism as the cause of the Salem epidemic was unlikely. Historians published in the early 21st century continue to stand by Spanos and Gottlieb's conclusion. Historian Leon Harrier has argued that only some members of a household might have shown symptoms because they had underlying conditions. Being chemically similar to lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), ergot would not survive in

300-547: A household, would have shown symptoms, but this was not the case. In general, the proportion of children affected was significantly less than in a typical ergotism epidemic. Spanos and Gottlieb also state that most of ergot poisoning's symptoms, like crawling and tingling sensations, vertigo, tinnitus, vomiting, and diarrhea, do not appear in the records of events in Salem. Lastly, they note that convulsive ergotism epidemics only take place in communities suffering from vitamin A deficiencies; they argued that residents of Salem, living in

350-614: A miracle commemorated in the 26 November "Feast of the Burning Ones". The blight, named cockspur owing to the appearance of infected grains, was identified and named by Denis Dodart , who reported the relation between ergotized rye and bread poisoning in a letter to the French Royal Academy of Sciences in 1676 ( John Ray mentioned ergot for the first time in English the next year). "Ergotism" in this modern sense

400-470: A root system of rhizomes; these root systems should be planted with the top of the rhizome just above ground level, with leaves from the following year showing. The point of dividing perennials is to increase the amount of a single breed of plant in your garden. In the United States more than 900 million dollars worth of potted herbaceous perennial plants were sold in 2019. Although most of humanity

450-420: A rounded to truncate ligule 1–2 millimetres (0.039–0.079 in) long. The conical panicle is 5–20 centimetres (2–8 in) long, with 3 to 5 branches in the basal whorls; the oval spikelets are 3–6 millimetres (0.12–0.24 in) long with 2 to 5 florets , and are purplish-green or grey. They are in flower from May to July, compared to annual meadowgrass ( Poa annua ) which is in flower for eight months of

500-479: A very few (e.g. Zostera ) occurring in shallow sea water. Herbaceous perennial plants are particularly dominant in conditions too fire-prone for trees and shrubs, e.g., most plants on prairies and steppes are perennials; they are also dominant on tundra too cold for tree growth. Nearly all forest plants are perennials, including trees and shrubs. Perennial plants are usually better long-term competitors, especially under stable, resource-poor conditions. This

550-406: A year of Caporael's article, historians Nicholas Spanos and Jack Gottlieb refuted the idea in the same journal. In Spanos and Gottlieb's rebuttal to Caporael's article, they concluded that there are several flaws in the explanation. They noted that if ergotism was present in Salem, the symptoms would have occurred by household, not individual. Whole families, and particularly all the young children in

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600-686: Is Greek for fodder and pratensis is derived from pratum , the Latin for meadow . The name Kentucky bluegrass derives from its flower heads, which are blue when the plant is allowed to grow to its natural height of 60 to 90 cm (2 to 3 feet). Poa pratensis is the type species of the grass family Poaceae . There are two ill-defined subspecies: Poa pratensis is a herbaceous perennial plant 30–70 centimetres (12–28 in) tall. The leaves have boat-shaped tips, narrowly linear, up to 20 centimetres (8 in) long and 3–5 millimetres (0.12–0.20 in) broad, smooth or slightly roughened, with

650-573: Is a brand-named dwarf variant of Poa pratentis developed by the University of Nebraska . It has relatively deep roots and propagates relatively rapidly horizontally from its root system but grows to only 2–5 inches (5–13 cm) in above-ground height, basically eliminating the need for mowing lawns that use it. It cannot be reproduced by seed and thus depends on sod plugs or sprigging for its production. Perennial Perennials (especially small flowering plants ) that grow and bloom over

700-550: Is associated with the Salem witch trials in 1692, where some historians believe ergotism may have contributed to the symptoms reported by the accusers. Epidemics of the disease were identified throughout history, though the references in classical writings are inconclusive. Rye, the main vector (route) for transmitting ergotism, was not grown much around the Mediterranean . When Fuchs separated references to ergotism from erysipelas and other conditions in 1834, he found

750-399: Is creeping, with runners ( rhizomes ). The broad, blunt leaves tend to spread at the base, forming close mats. Poa pratensis is among the food plants of the caterpillars of the meadow brown ( Maniola jurtina ), gatekeeper ( Pyronia tithonus ), and pepper-and-salt skipper butterflies; the common sun beetle ( Amara aenea ) (adults feed on the developing seeds), Eupelix cuspidata of

800-783: Is due to the development of larger root systems which can access water and soil nutrients deeper in the soil and to earlier emergence in the spring. Annual plants have an advantage in disturbed environments because of their faster growth and reproduction rates. Each section contains a short list of species related to that topic, these are an example as the true lists would fill several books. Perennials grown for their decorative flowers include very many species and types. Some examples include: The majority of fruit bearing plants are perennial even in temperate climates. Examples include: Many herbs are perennial, including these examples: Many vegetable plants can grow as perennials in tropical climates, but die in cold weather. Examples of some of

850-483: Is fed by the re-sowing of the seeds of annual grain crops, (either naturally or by the manual efforts of humans), perennial crops provide numerous benefits. Perennial plants often have deep, extensive root systems which can hold soil to prevent erosion , capture dissolved nitrogen before it can contaminate ground and surface water, and out-compete weeds (reducing the need for herbicides ). These potential benefits of perennials have resulted in new attempts to increase

900-598: Is on the National Register of Historic Places. Since the 1950s and early 1960s, 90% of Kentucky bluegrass seed in the United States has been produced on specialist farms in Idaho , Oregon and Washington . During the 1990s botanists began experimenting with hybrids of Poa pratensis and Texas bluegrass ( P. arachnifera ), with the goal of creating a drought and heat-resistant lawn grass. In warm climates, such hybrids may remain green year-round. Bella Bluegrass

950-451: Is possible. Poisonings due to consumption of seeds treated with mercury compounds are sometimes misidentified as ergotism. There have been numerous cases of mass-poisoning due to consumption of mercury-treated seeds. The convulsive symptoms from ergot-tainted rye may have been the source of accusations of bewitchment that spurred the Salem witch trials . This medical explanation for

1000-429: Is too cold or dry. In many parts of the world, seasonality is expressed as wet and dry periods rather than warm and cold periods, and deciduous perennials lose their leaves in the dry season. Some perennial plants are protected from wildfires because they have underground roots that produce adventitious shoots, bulbs, crowns , or stems ; other perennials like trees and shrubs may have thick cork layers that protect

1050-475: The astronomical symbol for the planet Jupiter . Perennial plants can be short-lived (only a few years) or long-lived. They include a wide assortment of plant groups from non-flowering plants like ferns and liverworts to highly diverse flowering plants like orchids , grasses , and woody plants . Plants that flower and fruit only once and then die are termed monocarpic or semelparous ; these species may live for many years before they flower. For example,

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1100-482: The leafhopper family, and Myrmus miriformis , a grassbug (feeds on young blades and developing seeds). Poa pratensis is host to a number of fungi , including Claviceps purpurea , which causes ergotism when consumed, Drechslera poae , Epichloë typhina , Phaeoseptoria poae , Puccinia brachypodii var. poae-nemoralis , Stagonospora montagnei , Stagonospora nodorum and Wojnowicia hirta . The Central Kentucky Blue Grass Seed Company Building

1150-615: The Salem witchcraft records. Caporael also states that there was an abundance of rye in the region, as well as climate conditions that could support the tainting of rye. In 1982, historian Mary Matossian raised Caporael's theory in an article in American Scientist , in which she argued that symptoms of "bewitchment" resemble the ones exhibited in those affected by ergot poisoning. The hypothesis that ergotism could explain cases of bewitchment has been subject to significant debate and has been criticized by several scholars. Within

1200-474: The acidic environment of a typical human's stomach, especially in properly cooked food. But if some residents of a household were malnourished and had bleeding stomach ulcers, those individuals would have had a heightened risk of absorbing the toxin (even with properly cooked food items) through the stomach lining, offering a direct route to the bloodstream. Only those with these preexisting conditions would have been affected by ingesting contaminated grains, leaving

1250-446: The advantage of generating larger seedlings that can better compete with other plants. Perennials also produce seeds over many years. An important aspect of cold acclimation is overexpression of DNA repair genes. In Thinopyrum intermedium a perennial relative of common wheat Triticum aestivum , conditions of freezing stress were shown to be associated with large increases in expression of two DNA repair genes (one gene product

1300-487: The air. Rotating crops using non-susceptible plants helps reduce infestations, since ergot spores live only one year. Crop rotation and deep tillage, such as deep mold-board ploughing , are important components in managing ergot, as many cereal crops in the 21st century are sown with a "no-till" practice (new crops are sown directly into the stubble from the previous crop to reduce soil erosion). Wild and escaped grasses and pastures can be mown before they flower to help limit

1350-694: The death and loss of affected tissues . Vasoconstriction is treated with vasodilators . Historically, eating grain products, particularly rye , contaminated with the fungus Claviceps purpurea was the cause of ergotism. The toxic ergoline derivatives are found in ergot-based drugs (such as methylergometrine , ergotamine or, previously, ergotoxine ). The deleterious side effects occur either under high dose or when moderate doses interact with potentiators such as erythromycin . The alkaloids can pass through lactation from mother to child, causing ergotism in infants. Dark-purple or black grain kernels, known as ergot bodies, can be identifiable in

1400-594: The different manifestations of ergotism in different outbreaks. For example, an alkaloid present in high concentrations in ergots from Europe east of the Rhine may have caused convulsive ergotism, while ergot from the west caused epidemics of gangrenous ergotism. In medieval Europe, outbreaks of ergotism were sometimes interpreted as divine punishment or witchcraft. The condition's symptoms, particularly hallucinations and convulsions, often led to accusations of demonic possession. The disease's association with St. Anthony's Fire

1450-510: The dormancy period is over and new growth begins. In climates that are warm all year long, perennials may grow continuously. Annuals which complete their life cycle in one growing season, in contrast with perennials, produce seeds as the next generation and die; the seeds may survive cold or dry periods or germinate soon after dispersal depending on the climate. Some perennials retain their foliage year-round; these are evergreen perennials. Deciduous perennials shed all their leaves part of

1500-735: The earliest reference to ergotism in the Annales Xantenses for the year 857: "a great plague of swollen blisters consumed the people by a loathsome rot, so that their limbs were loosened and fell off before death". In the Middle Ages the gangrenous poisoning was known as "holy fire" or "Saint Anthony's fire", named after monks of the Order of St. Anthony , who were particularly successful at treating this ailment. According to Snorri Sturluson in his Heimskringla , King Magnus II of Norway , son of King Harald Sigurtharson , who

1550-610: The ergot fungus, can cause severe vasoconstriction , leading to symptoms like gangrene and convulsions. Additionally, ergot alkaloids can mimic neurotransmitters and hormones in the human body, causing hallucinations and affecting hormonal balance. Chronic exposure to ergot alkaloids has been linked to reproductive issues, such as spontaneous abortions and infertility, due to their action on the pituitary gland. Convulsive symptoms include painful seizures and spasms , diarrhea , paresthesias , itching, mental effects including mania or psychosis , headaches, nausea and vomiting. Usually

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1600-409: The gastrointestinal effects precede central nervous system effects. The dry gangrene is a result of vasoconstriction induced by the ergotamine - ergocristine alkaloids of the fungus. It affects the more poorly vascularized distal structures, such as the fingers and toes. Symptoms include desquamation or peeling, weak peripheral pulses , loss of peripheral sensation, edema and ultimately

1650-541: The growing season, and can grow taller than annuals. In doing so they can better compete for space and collect more light. Perennials typically grow structures that allow them to adapt to living from one year to the next through a form of vegetative reproduction rather than seeding. These structures include bulbs , tubers , woody crowns, rhizomes , turions , woody stems, or crowns which allows them to survive periods of dormancy over cold or dry seasons; these structures typically store carbohydrates which are used once

1700-570: The gut of the Grauballe Man , a bog body dated the late 3rd century BC. When milled, the ergot is reduced to a red powder, obvious in lighter grasses but easy to miss in dark rye flour. In less wealthy countries, ergotism still occurs; an outbreak in Ethiopia occurred in mid-2001 from contaminated barley . Whenever there is a combination of moist weather, cool temperatures, delayed harvest in lowland crops and rye consumption, an outbreak

1750-469: The heads of cereal or grass just before harvest. In most plants the ergot bodies are larger than normal grain kernels, but can be smaller if the grain is a type of wheat. Removal of ergot bodies is done by placing the yield in a brine solution; the ergot bodies float, while the healthy grains sink. Infested fields must be deep-ploughed; ergot cannot germinate if buried more than one inch (2.5 cm) in soil and therefore will not release its spores into

1800-620: The hormones produced due to environmental situations (i.e., seasons), reproduction, and stage of development to begin and halt the ability to grow or flower. There is also a distinction between the ability to grow and the actual task of growth. For example, most trees regain the ability to grow during winter but do not initiate physical growth until the spring and summer months. The start of dormancy can be seen in perennial plants through withering flowers, loss of leaves on trees, and halting of reproduction in both flowering and budding plants. Perennial species may produce relatively large seeds that have

1850-444: The majority unaffected. Anthropologist H. Sidky noted that ergotism had been known for centuries before the Salem witch trials and argued that its symptoms would have been recognizable during the time of the Salem witch trials. In 2003 it was pointed out that ergots produced by different strains of Claviceps purpurea , as well as those growing in different soils, may produce different ergot alkaloid compositions. This may explain

1900-582: The more completely perennial vegetables are: Many aquatic plants are perennial even though many do not have woody tissue. Examples include: Ergotism Ergotism (pron. / ˈ ɜːr ɡ ə t ˌ ɪ z ə m / UR -gət-iz-əm ) is the effect of long-term ergot poisoning , traditionally due to the ingestion of the alkaloids produced by the Claviceps purpurea fungus—from the Latin clava "club" or clavus "nail" and -ceps for "head", i.e.

1950-426: The purple club-headed fungus—that infects rye and other cereals , and more recently by the action of a number of ergoline -based drugs. It is also known as ergotoxicosis , ergot poisoning , and Saint Anthony's fire . Ergotism is the effect of long-term ergot poisoning . The symptoms can be roughly divided into convulsive symptoms and gangrenous symptoms. Ergot alkaloids, the active compounds produced by

2000-465: The seed yield of perennial species, which could result in the creation of new perennial grain crops. Some examples of new perennial crops being developed are perennial rice and intermediate wheatgrass . A perennial rice developed in 2018, was reported in 2023, to have provided a similar yield to replanted annual rice when evaluated over eight consecutive harvests. Perennial plants dominate many natural ecosystems on land and in fresh water, with only

2050-622: The seeds of Kentucky bluegrass to the New World in mixtures with other grasses. It is a common and incredibly popular lawn grass in North America with the species being spread over all of the cool, humid parts of the United States . In its native range, Poa pratensis forms a valuable pasture plant, characteristic of well-drained, fertile soil. It is also used for making lawns in parks and gardens and has established itself as

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2100-609: The spread of ergot. Chemical controls can also be used but are not considered economical, especially in commercial operations, and germination of ergot spores can still occur under favourable conditions even with the use of such controls. Throughout history, outbreaks of ergotism have been documented, particularly in Europe. One of the most notable incidents occurred in 944 AD in France, where ergot poisoning led to widespread hallucinations, gangrene, and convulsions. Another significant case

2150-668: The spring and summer, die back every autumn and winter, and then return in the spring from their rootstock or other overwintering structure, are known as herbaceous perennials . However, depending on the rigours of the local climate (temperature, moisture, organic content in the soil, microorganisms), a plant that is a perennial in its native habitat, may be treated by a gardener as an annual and planted out every year, from seed, from cuttings, or from divisions. Tomato vines, for example, live several years in their natural tropical/ subtropical habitat but are grown as annuals in temperate regions because their above-ground biomass does not survive

2200-431: The stems. Herbaceous perennials from temperate and alpine regions of the world can tolerate the cold during winter. Perennial plants may remain dormant for long periods and then recommence growth and reproduction when the environment is more suitable, while most annual plants complete their life cycle during one growing period, and biennials have two growing periods. The meristem of perennial plants communicates with

2250-575: The theory of "bewitchment" was first propounded by Linnda R. Caporael in 1976 in an article in Science . In her article, Caporael argues that the convulsive symptoms such as crawling sensations in the skin , tingling in the fingers , vertigo , tinnitus aurium , headaches , disturbances in sensation, hallucination , painful muscular contractions , vomiting , and diarrhea , as well as psychological symptoms such as mania , melancholia , psychosis , and delirium , were all symptoms reported in

2300-405: The winter. There is also a class of evergreen perennials which lack woody stems, such as Bergenia which retain a mantle of leaves throughout the year. An intermediate class of plants is known as subshrubs , which retain a vestigial woody structure in winter, e.g. Penstemon . The symbol for a perennial plant, based on Species Plantarum by Linnaeus , is [REDACTED] , which is also

2350-439: The year. Deciduous perennials include herbaceous and woody plants; herbaceous plants have stems that lack hard, fibrous growth, while woody plants have stems with buds that survive above ground during dormancy. Some perennials are semi-deciduous, meaning they lose some of their leaves in either winter or summer. Deciduous perennials shed their leaves when growing conditions are no longer suitable for photosynthesis, such as when it

2400-399: The year. Poa pratensis has a fairly prominent mid-vein (center of the blade). The ligule is extremely short and square-ended, making a contrast with annual meadowgrass ( Poa annua ) and rough meadowgrass ( Poa trivialis ) in which it is silvery and pointed. The Kentucky bluegrass is a dark green/blue compared to the apple-green color of Poa annua and Poa trivialis . The rootstock

2450-650: Was first recorded in 1853. Notable epidemics of ergotism occurred into the 19th century. Fewer outbreaks have occurred since then owing to rye being carefully monitored in developed countries. However, a severe outbreak of something akin to ergot poisoning occurred in the French village of Pont-Saint-Esprit in 1951, resulting in five deaths. The outbreak and the diagnostic confusion surrounding it are vividly described in John Grant Fuller 's book The Day of St Anthony's Fire . Ergot sclerotiums were found in

2500-590: Was the half-brother of Saint King Olaf Haraldsson , died from ergotism shortly after the Battle of Hastings . The 12th-century chronicler Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois recorded the mysterious outbreaks in the Limousin region of France, where the gangrenous form of ergotism was associated with the local Saint Martial . Likewise, an outbreak in Paris around 1129 was reported to be cured by the relics of Saint Genevieve ,

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