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66-424: Genus-level: The king cobra ( Ophiophagus hannah ) is a species complex of snakes endemic to Asia . With an average of 3.18 to 4 m (10.4 to 13.1 ft) and a record length of 5.85 m (19.2 ft), it is the world's longest venomous snake and among the heaviest. Under the genus Ophiophagus , it is not phylogenetically a true cobra despite its common name and some resemblance. Spanning from

132-493: A considerable range and height with an immense venom yield, envenomation from this species may induce rapid onset of neurotoxic and cytotoxic symptoms, requiring prompt antivenom administration. Despite the fearsome reputation, aggression toward humans usually only arises from an individual inadvertently exposing itself or being cornered; encounters happen through chance, including negative interactions . Threatened by habitat destruction , it has been listed as Vulnerable on

198-459: A dominant frequency near 7,500 Hz, king cobra growls consist solely of frequencies below 2,500 Hz, with a dominant frequency near 600 Hz, a much lower-pitched frequency closer to that of a human voice. Comparative anatomical morphometric analysis has led to a discovery of tracheal diverticula that function as low-frequency resonating chambers in king cobra and its prey, the rat snake, both of which can make similar growls. The female

264-449: A golden iris and round pupils. Its hood is oval shaped and covered with olive green smooth scales and two black spots between the two lowest scales. Its cylindrical tail is yellowish green above and marked with black. It has a pair of large occipital scales on top of the head, 17 to 19 rows of smooth oblique scales on the neck, and 15 rows on the body. Juveniles are black with chevron shaped white, yellow or buff bars that point towards

330-530: A host in the case of symbionts or extreme environments). This may constrain possible directions of evolution; in such cases, strongly divergent selection is not to be expected. Also, asexual reproduction, such as through apomixis in plants, may separate lineages without producing a great degree of morphological differentiation. A species complex is usually a group that has one common ancestor (a monophyletic group), but closer examination can sometimes disprove that. For example, yellow-spotted "fire salamanders" in

396-443: A king cobra receives chemical information via its forked tongue , which picks up scent particles and transfers them to a sensory receptor ( Jacobson's organ ) located in the roof of its mouth. Following envenomation , it swallows its prey whole. Because of its flexible jaws, it can swallow prey much larger than its head. It is considered diurnal because it hunts during the day, but has also been seen at night, rarely. The king cobra

462-574: A long time period without evolving morphological differences. Hybrid speciation can be a component in the evolution of a species complex. Species complexes are ubiquitous and are identified by the rigorous study of differences between individual species that uses minute morphological details, tests of reproductive isolation , or DNA -based methods, such as molecular phylogenetics and DNA barcoding . The existence of extremely similar species may cause local and global species diversity to be underestimated. The recognition of similar-but-distinct species

528-493: A maximum length of 2.75 m (9 ft 0 in) and a weight of 5 kg (11 lb). The largest known king cobra was 5.59 m (18 ft 4 in) long and captured in Thailand . It differs from other cobra species by size and hood. It is larger, has a narrower and longer stripe on the neck. The king cobra has a wide distribution throughout tropical Asia . It occurs in elevations of 2,000 m (6,600 ft) from

594-656: A minor vespryn protein component specific to this species, causes hypolocomotion and hyperalgesia in experimental mice. It is believed that it contributes to neurotoxicity on the central nervous system of the victim. A king cobra's bite, and subsequent envenomation, is an immediate medical emergency in humans or domesticated animals, as, if not treated as soon as possible, death can occur in as little as 30 minutes. Local symptoms include dusky discolouration of skin, edema and pain; in severe cases, swelling extends proximally, with necrosis and tissue sloughing that may require amputation. Onset of general symptoms follows while

660-538: A multigene analysis showed that the king cobra was an early offshoot of a genetic lineage giving rise to the mambas , rather than the Naja cobras. A phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA showed that specimens from Surat Thani Province and Nakhon Si Thammarat Provinces in southern Thailand form a deeply genetically divergent clade from those in northern Thailand, which grouped with specimens from Myanmar and Guangdong in southern China. The king cobra's skin

726-559: A species complex in formation. Nevertheless, similar but distinct species have sometimes been isolated for a long time without evolving differences, a phenomenon known as "morphological stasis". For example, the Amazonian frog Pristimantis ockendeni is actually at least three different species that diverged over 5 million years ago. Stabilizing selection has been invoked as a force maintaining similarity in species complexes, especially when they adapted to special environments (such as

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792-496: A species complex. Distinguishing close species within a complex requires the study of often very small differences. Morphological differences may be minute and visible only by the use of adapted methods, such as microscopy . However, distinct species sometimes have no morphological differences. In those cases, other characters, such as in the species' life history , behavior , physiology , and karyology , may be explored. For example, territorial songs are indicative of species in

858-437: A species group usually have partially overlapping ranges but do not interbreed with one another. A Dictionary of Zoology ( Oxford University Press 1999) describes a species group as complex of related species that exist allopatrically and explains that the "grouping can often be supported by experimental crosses in which only certain pairs of species will produce hybrids ." The examples given below may support both uses of

924-441: A variety of H. elaps . Naja ingens proposed by Alexander Willem Michiel van Hasselt in 1882 was a king cobra captured near Tebing Tinggi in northern Sumatra. The earliest scientific name for the king cobra was Naja bungaroides , given by Friedrich Boie in 1828 based on a juvenile specimen from Java . This description was improperly done, leaving it a nomen nudum at the time. However, Johann Georg Wagler validated

990-519: Is gravid for 50 to 59 days. The king cobra is the only snake that builds a nest using dry leaf litter , starting from late March to late May. Most nests are located at the base of trees, are up to 55 cm (22 in) high in the centre and 140 cm (55 in) wide at the base. They consist of several layers and have mostly one chamber, into which the female lays eggs. Clutch size ranges from 7 to 43 eggs, with 6 to 38 eggs hatching after incubation periods of 66 to 105 days. Temperature inside nests

1056-418: Is olive green with black and white bands on the trunk that converge to the head. The head is covered by 15 drab-coloured and black-edged shields ( large scales consistently present between individuals ). The muzzle is rounded, and the tongue black. It has two fangs and 3–5 maxillary teeth in the upper jaw, and two rows of teeth in the lower jaw. The nostrils are between two shields. The large eyes have

1122-476: Is a priestess who is usually tattooed with three pictograms and kisses the snake on the top of its head at the end of the ritual. Members of the Pakokku clan tattoo themselves with ink mixed with cobra venom on their upper bodies in a weekly inoculation that they believe would protect them from the snake, though no scientific evidence supports this. It is regarded as the national reptile of India . In India,

1188-402: Is an apex predator and dominant over all other snakes except large pythons . Its diet consists primarily of other snakes and lizards , including Indian cobra , banded krait , rat snake , pythons , green whip snake , keelback , banded wolf snake and Blyth's reticulated snake . It also hunts Malabar pit viper and hump-nosed pit viper by following their odour trails. In Singapore, one

1254-521: Is fusion of the meiotic products formed at the anaphase II stage of meiosis. The venom of hatchlings is as potent as that of the adults. They may be brightly marked, but these colours often fade as they mature. They are alert and nervous, being highly aggressive if disturbed. The average lifespan of a wild king cobra is about 20 years. Venom of the king cobra, produced by the postorbital venom glands , consists primarily of three-finger toxins (3FTx) and snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs). Of all

1320-431: Is important for disease and pest control and in conservation biology although the drawing of dividing lines between species can be inherently difficult . A species complex is typically considered as a group of close, but distinct species. Obviously, the concept is closely tied to the definition of a species. Modern biology understands a species as "separately evolving metapopulation lineage " but acknowledges that

1386-476: Is known to aggressively defend incubating eggs and attack intruders rapidly. When alarmed, it raises the front part of its body, extends the hood, shows the fangs and hisses loudly. Wild king cobras encountered in Singapore appeared to be placid, but reared up and struck in self defense when cornered. The king cobra can be easily irritated by closely approaching objects or sudden movements. When raising its body,

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1452-477: Is not steady but varies depending on elevation from 13.5 to 37.4 °C (56.3 to 99.3 °F). Females stay by their nests between two and 77 days. Hatchlings are between 37.5 and 58.5 cm (14.8 and 23.0 in) long and weigh 9 to 38 g (0.32 to 1.34 oz). The king cobra was shown to be capable of facultative parthenogenesis . The parthenogenetic mechanism appears to be a variation of meiosis referred to as terminal fusion automixis in which there

1518-460: Is occurring, which leads to intermediate forms and blurred species boundaries. The informal classification, superspecies, can be exemplified by the grizzled skipper butterfly, which is a superspecies that is further divided into three subspecies. Some authors apply the term to a species with intraspecific variability , which might be a sign of ongoing or incipient speciation . Examples are ring species or species with subspecies , in which it

1584-504: Is often unclear if they should be considered separate species. Several terms are used synonymously for a species complex, but some of them may also have slightly different or narrower meanings. In the nomenclature codes of zoology and bacteriology, no taxonomic ranks are defined at the level between subgenus and species, but the botanical code defines four ranks below subgenus (section, subsection, series, and subseries). Different informal taxonomic solutions have been used to indicate

1650-661: Is one of two species of king cobra found in the Philippines , with the other being the Sunda king cobra ( Ophiophagus bungarus ). As a member of the king cobra family, the Luzon king cobra is also considered as "vulnerable" under the IUCN Red List . However due to the fact this was before the fact the species split it may need reassessment, as the Luzon king cobra has a more restrictive range. This snake article

1716-572: Is protected in China and Vietnam. In India, it is placed under Schedule II of Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 . Killing a king cobra is punished with imprisonment of up to six years. In the Philippines , king cobras (locally known as banakon ) are included under the list of threatened species in the country. It is protected under the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act (Republic Act No. 9147), which criminalises

1782-587: The European Journal of Taxonomy on October 16, 2024. The last name of salvatana is the name for king cobra in the Tagalog language The Luzon king cobra can grow to a length of up to 10 ft (3.0 m). The Luzon king cobra lacks pale bands along the body, and fewer pterygoid teeth only having 11 compared to the other species having 18-21. The Luzon king cobra is found only in Luzon and

1848-487: The Galápagos Islands described by Charles Darwin . It has been suggested that cryptic species complexes are very common in the marine environment. That suggestion came before the detailed analysis of many systems using DNA sequence data but has been proven to be correct. The increased use of DNA sequence in the investigation of organismal diversity (also called phylogeography and DNA barcoding ) has led to

1914-530: The Great Andaman chain. It may have reached the furthest west of its distributional range in extreme western India & eastern Pakistan, in the vicinity of Lahore and Palanpur . These populations have sometimes been thought to be the result of introduction by snake charmers or transport along rivers, but are now more likely considered natural populations. However, it remains uncertain if any populations continue to persist there. Like other snakes,

1980-469: The IUCN Red List since 2010. Regarded as the national reptile of India , it has an eminent position in the mythology and folk traditions of India , Bangladesh , Sri Lanka and Myanmar . The king cobra is also referred to by the common name " hamadryad ", especially in older literature. Hamadryas hannah was the scientific name used by Danish naturalist Theodore Edward Cantor in 1836 who described four king cobra specimens , three captured in

2046-506: The Indian Subcontinent through Southeastern Asia to Southern China , the king cobra is widely distributed albeit not commonly seen. Individuals have diversified colouration across its habitats , from black with white strips to unbroken brownish grey, although after taxonomic re-evaluation, it is no longer the sole member of its genus but is now a species complex; these differences in pattern and other aspects may cause

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2112-525: The Sundarbans and one in the vicinity of Kolkata . The origin of the species name hannah was not specified during description and has long been uncertain, but may potentially refer to Hannah Sarah Wallich, the eldest daughter of Cantor's uncle, botanist Nathaniel Wallich , who hosted Cantor during his studies in India. The genus Ophiophagus was proposed by Günther in 1864 in place of Hamadryas , as

2178-798: The Terai in India and southern Nepal to the Brahmaputra River basin in Bhutan and northeast India, down to Bangladesh, Myanmar, southern China , Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam; to the maritime Southeast Asian countries of Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines. In northern India, it has been recorded in Garhwal and Kumaon , and in the Sivalik hills and terai regions of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh . In northeast India,

2244-399: The criteria to delimit species may depend on the group studied. Thus, many traditionally defined species, based only on morphological similarity, have been found to be several distinct species when other criteria, such as genetic differentiation or reproductive isolation , are applied. A more restricted use applies the term to a group of species among which hybridisation has occurred or

2310-892: The malaria vector genus of mosquito, Anopheles , the fungi causing cryptococcosis , and sister species of Bactrocera tryoni , or the Queensland fruit fly. That pest is indistinguishable from two sister species except that B. tryoni inflicts widespread, devastating damage to Australian fruit crops, but the sister species do not. When a species is found to be several phylogenetically distinct species, each typically has smaller distribution ranges and population sizes than had been reckoned. The different species can also differ in their ecology, such as by having different breeding strategies or habitat requirements, which must be taken into account for appropriate management. For example, giraffe populations and subspecies differ genetically to such an extent that they may be considered species. Although

2376-471: The treecreepers , a bird genus with few morphological differences. Mating tests are common in some groups such as fungi to confirm the reproductive isolation of two species. Analysis of DNA sequences is becoming increasingly standard for species recognition and may, in many cases, be the only useful method. Different methods are used to analyse such genetic data, such as molecular phylogenetics or DNA barcoding . Such methods have greatly contributed to

2442-420: The 3FTx, alpha-neurotoxins are the predominant and most lethal components when cytotoxins and beta-cardiotoxins also exhibit toxicological activities. It is reported that cytotoxicity of its venom varies significantly, depending upon the age and locality of an individual. Clinical cardiotoxicity is not widely observed, nor is nephrotoxicity present among patients bitten by this species, presumably due to

2508-410: The Amazonian frog Eleutherodactylus ockendeni is actually at least three different species that diverged over 5 million years ago. A species flock may arise when a species penetrates a new geographical area and diversifies to occupy a variety of ecological niches , a process known as adaptive radiation . The first species flock to be recognized as such was the 13 species of Darwin's finches on

2574-498: The Thai Red Cross Society can effectively neutralise venom of the king cobra. In India and Thailand , a concoction (or liquid blend) of turmeric ( Curcuma longa ) and other potent, medically relevant herbs reportedly creates a strong resilience against the venom of the king cobra when ingested. Proper and immediate treatments are critical to avoid death. Successful precedents include a client who recovered and

2640-489: The Western Ghats king cobra ( O. kaalinga ) and the Luzon king cobra ( O. salvatana ) . These distinct genetic lineages are geographically isolated and adapted to specific ecological regions. In 1838, Cantor proposed the name Hamadryas ophiophagus for the king cobra and explained that it has dental features intermediate between the genera Naja and Bungarus . Naia vittata proposed by Walter Elliot in 1840

2706-407: The discovery of a great many cryptic species complexes in all habitats. In the marine bryozoan Celleporella hyalina , detailed morphological analyses and mating compatibility tests between the isolates identified by DNA sequence analysis were used to confirm that these groups consisted of more than 10 ecologically distinct species, which had been diverging for many millions of years. Evidence from

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2772-474: The discovery of cryptic species, including such emblematic species as the fly agaric , the water fleas , or the African elephants . Species forming a complex have typically diverged very recently from each other, which sometimes allows the retracing of the process of speciation . Species with differentiated populations, such as ring species , are sometimes seen as an example of early, ongoing speciation:

2838-541: The genus Salamandra , formerly all classified as one species S. salamandra , are not monophyletic: the Corsican fire salamander 's closest relative has been shown to be the entirely black Alpine salamander . In such cases, similarity has arisen from convergent evolution . Hybrid speciation can lead to unclear species boundaries through a process of reticulate evolution , in which species have two parent species as their most recent common ancestors . In such cases,

2904-434: The genus Hamadryas was already used for the cracker butterflies . The name is derived from its propensity to eat snakes. Ophiophagus hannah was accepted as the valid name for the king cobra by Charles Mitchill Bogert in 1945 who argued that it differs significantly from Naja species. It has been suggested that three more king cobra species exist in addition to O. hannah , namely the Sunda king cobra O. bungarus ,

2970-560: The genus to be split into at least four species, spread across its large geographic range . It chiefly hunts other snakes , including those of its own kind , although other lizards and rodents are occasional prey items. This is the only ophidian that constructs an above-ground nest for its eggs, which are purposefully and meticulously gathered and protected by the female throughout the incubation period. Typical threat display of this elapid includes neck-flap spreading, head raising, hissing and sometimes charging. Capable of striking at

3036-428: The giraffe, as a whole, is not considered to be threatened, if each cryptic species is considered separately, there is a much higher level of threat. Ophiophagus salvatana Ophiophagus salvatana or the Luzon king cobra , is a species of king cobra that is endemic to the island of Luzon in northern Philippines . The Luzon king cobra was recognized as a distinct species in an article published in

3102-540: The head. Adult king cobras are 3.18 to 4 m (10.4 to 13.1 ft) long. The longest known individual measured 5.85 m (19.2 ft). Ventral scales are uniformly oval shaped. Dorsal scales are placed in an oblique arrangement. The king cobra is sexually dimorphic , with males being larger and paler in particular during the breeding season. Males captured in Kerala measured up to 3.75 m (12.3 ft) and weighed up to 10 kg (22 lb). Females captured had

3168-539: The hybrid species may have intermediate characters, such as in Heliconius butterflies. Hybrid speciation has been observed in various species complexes, such as insects, fungi, and plants. In plants, hybridization often takes place through polyploidization , and hybrid plant species are called nothospecies . Sources differ on whether or not members of a species group share a range . A source from Iowa State University Department of Agronomy states that members of

3234-424: The identification of cryptic species has led some to conclude that current estimates of global species richness are too low. Pests, species that cause diseases and their vectors, have direct importance for humans. When they are found to be cryptic species complexes, the ecology and the virulence of each of these species need to be re-evaluated to devise appropriate control strategies. Examples are cryptic species in

3300-486: The killing, trade, and consumption of threatened species with certain exceptions (like indigenous subsistence hunting or immediate threats to human life), with a maximum penalty of two years imprisonment and a fine of ₱ 20,000. The king cobra has an eminent position in the mythology and folklore of India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Myanmar. A ritual in Myanmar involves a king cobra and a female snake charmer. The charmer

3366-450: The king cobra and improperly assigned to the broad-headed snake, became conflated with the broad-headed snake and used as the type species of Hoplocephalus , while the species name Naja bungarus was treated as a junior synonym of the king cobra (until its revival as the species name for the Sunda king cobra in 2024). This longstanding discrepancy, which breaks the principle of priority ,

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3432-419: The king cobra can still move forward to strike with a long distance, and people may misjudge the safe zone. It can deliver multiple bites in a single attack. The hiss of the king cobra is a much lower pitch than many other snakes and many people thus liken its call to a "growl" rather than a hiss. While the hisses of most snakes are of a broad- frequency span ranging from roughly 3,000 to 13,000  Hz with

3498-631: The king cobra has been recorded in northern West Bengal , Sikkim , Assam , Meghalaya , Arunachal Pradesh , Nagaland , Manipur and Mizoram . In the Eastern Ghats , it occurs from Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh to coastal Odisha , and also in Bihar and southern West Bengal , especially the Sundarbans . In the Western Ghats, it was recorded in Kerala , Karnataka and Maharashtra , and also in Gujarat . It also occurs on Baratang Island in

3564-499: The king cobra is believed to possess exceptional memory; according to a myth, the killer of a king cobra stays in the eyes of the snake as an image, which is later picked up by the snake's partner and used to hunt down the killer for revenge . Because of this myth, whenever a cobra is killed especially in India, the head, if not the entire body, is either crushed or burned to destroy the eyes completely. Species complex Two or more taxa that were once considered conspecific (of

3630-439: The king cobra's venom, they only induce species-sensitive haemorrhagic and lethal activities on rabbits and hares, but with minimal effects on mice. Clinical pathophysiology of the king cobra's SVMPs has yet to be well studied, although its substantial quantity suggests involvement in tissue damage and necrosis as a result of inflammatory and proteolytic activities, which are instrumental for foraging and digestive purposes. Ohanin,

3696-507: The low abundance of the toxins. SVMPs are the second most protein family isolated from the king cobra's venom, accounting from 11.9% to 24.4% of total venom proteins. The abundance is much higher than that of most cobras which is usually less than 1%. This protein family includes principal toxins responsible for vasculature damage and interference with haemostasis , contributing to bleeding and coagulopathy caused by envenomation of vipers . While there are such haemorrhagins isolated from

3762-491: The name in 1830 with a sufficient diagnosis, and also proposed a new genus for it, Hoplocephalus . In 1837, Hermann Schlegel used the name Naja bungaroides for his description of the Australian broad-headed snake , which was later reclassified into Wagler's Hoplocephalus , and used the species name Naja bungarus for the king cobra. Since then, the species name Naja / Hoplocephalus bungaroides , originally coined for

3828-417: The same species) may later be subdivided into infraspecific taxa (taxa within a species, such as bacterial strains or plant varieties ), which may be a complex ranking but it is not a species complex. In most cases, a species complex is a monophyletic group of species with a common ancestor, but there are exceptions. It may represent an early stage after speciation in which the species were separated for

3894-461: The same species. Where closely related species co-exist in sympatry , it is often a particular challenge to understand how the similar species persist without outcompeting each other. Niche partitioning is one mechanism invoked to explain that. Indeed, studies in some species complexes suggest that species divergence have gone in par with ecological differentiation, with species now preferring different microhabitats. Similar methods also found that

3960-561: The term "species group." Often, such complexes do not become evident until a new species is introduced into the system, which breaks down existing species barriers. An example is the introduction of the Spanish slug in Northern Europe , where interbreeding with the local black slug and red slug , which were traditionally considered clearly separate species that did not interbreed, shows that they may be actually just subspecies of

4026-532: The venom is targeting the victim's central nervous system , resulting in blurred vision, vertigo , drowsiness , and eventual paralysis . If not treated promptly, it may progress to cardiovascular collapse and, subsequently, coma . Death soon follows due to respiratory failure , among other simultaneous and varied system and organ failures. Polyvalent antivenom of equine origin is produced by Haffkine Institute and King Institute of Preventive Medicine and Research in India. A polyvalent antivenom produced by

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4092-426: Was a king cobra caught offshore near Chennai that was floating in a basket. This provenance is disputed, as wild king cobras have never occurred near Chennai, and an analysis of this specimen has found it to be more similar to the northern king cobra. Hamadryas elaps proposed by Albert Günther in 1858 were king cobra specimens from the Philippines and Borneo . Günther considered both N. bungarus and N. vittata

4158-428: Was discharged in 10 days after being treated by accurate antivenom and inpatient care . It can deliver up to 420 mg venom in dry weight (400–600 mg overall) per bite, with a LD 50 toxicity in mice of 1.28 mg/kg through intravenous injection , 1.5 to 1.7 mg/kg through subcutaneous injection , and 1.644 mg/kg through intraperitoneal injection . For research purposes, up to 1 g of venom

4224-443: Was observed swallowing a clouded monitor . When food is scarce, it also feeds on other small vertebrates, such as birds, and lizards. In some cases, the cobra constricts its prey using its muscular body, though this is uncommon. After a large meal, it may go for many months without another one because of its slow metabolic rate . The king cobra is not considered aggressive. It usually avoids humans and slinks off when disturbed, but

4290-469: Was obtained through milking. In Southeast Asia, the king cobra is threatened foremost by habitat destruction owing to deforestation and expansion of agricultural land. It is also threatened by wildlife smuggling , as well as by poaching , then sold as bushmeat or turned into snake leather, and for use in traditional Chinese medicine . The king cobra is listed in CITES Appendix II . It

4356-457: Was overlooked for nearly two centuries and only discovered in 2024. Due to the long presence of the names Ophiophagus hannah and Hoplocephalus bungaroides in the literature, which would be upended if these two species were reclassified based on this issue, it was decided to maintain the longstanding scientific names for both taxa and designate a new, accurate type specimen for the broad-headed snake. A genetic analysis using cytochrome b , and

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