122-461: Philosophers Works A kingmaker is a person or group that has great influence on a monarchy or royal in their political succession, without themselves being a viable candidate. Kingmakers may use political, monetary, religious, and military means to influence the succession. Originally, the term applied to the activities of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick —"Warwick the Kingmaker"—during
244-724: A Burgundian alliance. This set up an internal conflict within the English court, which was not alleviated by the fact that Edward had signed a secret treaty in October with Burgundy, while Warwick was forced to carry on sham negotiations with the French. Later, George Neville was dismissed as chancellor, while Edward refused to contemplate a marriage between Warwick's oldest daughter Isabel , and Edward's brother George, Duke of Clarence . It became increasingly clear that Warwick's position of dominance at court had been taken over by Rivers. In
366-460: A collection of beautifully illuminated historical and literary manuscripts, many made specially for him by craftsmen in Bruges. His book purchases included books for entertainment and instruction, whose contents reveal his interests. They focus on the lives of great rulers, including Julius Caesar , historical chronicles, and instructional and religious works. In 1476, William Caxton established
488-520: A complete victory for the Yorkist forces, and the death of many important men on the opposing side, such as Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland , and Andrew Trollope. Queen Margaret managed to escape to Scotland , with Henry and Prince Edward. Edward IV returned to London for his coronation, while Warwick remained to pacify the north. "They have but two rulers, M. de Warwick and another whose name I have forgotten." —The Governor of Abbeville in
610-716: A compromise, whereby Henry remained king, but York and his descendants were designated his successors. The implications of removing the legally accepted heir to the throne created substantial opposition to the Yorkist administration; in late 1460, Edward was given his first independent command and sent to deal with a Lancastrian insurgency in Wales. Warwick remained in London, while York, Salisbury, and Edmund marched north to suppress another in Yorkshire ; all three were killed following defeat at Wakefield on 30 December, leaving Edward as
732-584: A council meeting, and in the meanwhile, Warwick had been unknowingly deceiving the French into believing the king was serious about the marriage proposal. For Edward the marriage may very well have been a love match, but in the long run he sought to build the Woodville family into a powerhouse independent of Warwick's influence. The marriage of Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville caused Warwick to lose his power and influence. He accused Elizabeth, and her mother Jacquetta of Luxembourg , of witchcraft to try to restore
854-515: A grant. He performed military service in the north with his father, and might have taken part in the war against Scotland in 1448–1449. When Richard, Duke of York , unsuccessfully rose up against the king in 1452, both Warwick and his father rallied to the side of King Henry VI. In June 1453, Somerset was granted custody of the lordship of Glamorgan —part of the Despenser heritage held by Warwick until then—and open conflict broke out between
976-618: A group of royal councillors appointed the Duke of York protector of the realm. York could now count on the support not only of Warwick but also of Warwick's father Salisbury , who had become more deeply involved in disputes with the House of Percy in the north of England. York's first protectorate did not last long. Early in 1455, the king rallied sufficiently to return to power, at least nominally, with Somerset again wielding real power. Warwick returned to his estates, as did York and Salisbury, and
1098-597: A habitual use of emetics , which allowed him to gorge himself at meals, then return after vomiting to start again. He fell fatally ill at Easter 1483, but survived long enough to add codicils to his will, the most important naming his brother as Protector after his death. He died on 9 April 1483 and was buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle . His twelve-year-old son, Edward V , was never crowned, Gloucester becoming King Richard III in July. The cause of Edward's death
1220-643: A hard-fought victory at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross in Herefordshire . The battle was preceded by a meteorological phenomenon known as parhelion , or three suns, which he took as his emblem, the " Sun in splendour ". However, this was offset by Warwick's defeat at the Second Battle of St Albans on 17 February, the Lancastrians regaining custody of Henry VI. The two met in London, where Edward
1342-491: A label compony argent and azure for Beaufort ( House of Lancaster ) to signify the royal descent from Warwick's father Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury , who was the eldest son and heir of Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland and his wife, Lady Joan Beaufort , daughter of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster , third son of King Edward III and great-grandfather of the last Lancastrian King Henry VI. Edward IV Edward IV (28 April 1442 – 9 April 1483)
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#17327721663041464-559: A letter to Louis XI Warwick's position after the accession of Edward IV was stronger than ever. He had now succeeded to his father's possessions—including his vast network of retainers —and in 1462 he also inherited his mother's lands and the Salisbury title. Altogether, he had an annual income from his lands of over £7,000, far more than any other man in the realm but the king. Edward confirmed Warwick's position as Captain of Calais, and made him High Admiral of England and Steward of
1586-400: A part of his garrison to England, where he met up with his father and York in the autumn of 1459. In September 1459 Warwick crossed over to England and made his way north to Ludlow to meet up with York and Salisbury, the latter fresh from his victory over Lancastrians at the Battle of Blore Heath . At nearby Ludford Bridge their forces were scattered by the king's army, partly because of
1708-418: A sympathetic view of Warwick, but concluded that he had ultimately fallen victim to his own overreaching ambition. More recent historians, such as Michael Hicks and A. J. Pollard , have tried to see Warwick in light of the standards of his own age, rather than holding him up to contemporary constitutional ideals. The insults Warwick suffered at the hands of King Edward—including Edward's secret marriage, and
1830-432: A title is looked upon significantly and more often as a means of indirect gratification for individuals wanting to silently dictate the affairs of the organization. The term is also occasionally used in a pejorative sense during elections where a small number of independent political candidate(s) who hold a sizeable sway in the "vote bank" can most likely decide the course of an outcome. As well as referring to an individual,
1952-501: A treaty with Louis XI of France , which included a suggested marriage between Edward and Anne of France or Bona of Savoy , respectively daughter and sister-in-law of the French king. In October 1464, Warwick was enraged to discover that on 1 May, Edward had secretly married Elizabeth Woodville , a widow with two sons, whose Lancastrian husband, John Grey of Groby , died at the Second Battle of St Albans. If nothing else, it
2074-616: A viable Lancastrian figurehead, and the 1450s was dominated by political conflict between the two factions. By the age of 17, the Earl of March was a political and military leader in his own right; after their defeat at the Battle of Ludford Bridge in 1459, his father and brother Edmund fled to Ireland, while the Earls of March, Salisbury and Warwick made their way to Calais. Edward's name appears alongside those of his father, Warwick and Salisbury in widely circulated manifestoes declaring their quarrel
2196-521: A victim of the whims of an ungrateful king. It is generally agreed, however, that in his own time, he enjoyed great popularity in all layers of society, and that he was skilled at appealing to popular sentiments for political support. The Neville family , an ancient Durham family, came to prominence in England's fourteenth-century wars against the Scots . In 1397, King Richard II granted Ralph Neville
2318-615: A year, but was caught and imprisoned in the Tower of London . There was little point in killing him while his son remained alive since this would have transferred the Lancastrian claim from a frail captive to one who was young and free. Most of the nobility had either remained loyal to Henry or stayed neutral, forcing Edward to rely heavily on the Nevilles. Consolidating the regime initially took precedence, but John Neville 's victory at
2440-496: Is assumed that this had been agreed upon between the two in Ireland the previous March. It soon became clear, however, that this regime change was unacceptable to the lords in parliament, and a compromise was agreed. The Act of Accord of 25 October 1460 stated that while Henry VI was allowed to stay on the throne for the remainder of his life, his son Edward, Prince of Wales , was to be disinherited. Instead, York would succeed
2562-417: Is uncertain; allegations of poison were common in an era when lack of medical knowledge meant death often had no obvious explanation. Other suggestions include pneumonia or malaria , although both were well-known and easy to describe. One contemporary attributed it to apoplexy brought on by excess, which fits with what is known of his physical habits. Another theory is that Edward died of syphilis. While
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#17327721663042684-654: The Battle of Wakefield in December 1460. After defeating Lancastrian armies at Mortimer's Cross and Towton in early 1461, he deposed King Henry VI and took the throne. His marriage to Elizabeth Woodville in 1464 led to conflict with his chief advisor, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick , known as the "Kingmaker". In 1470, a revolt led by Warwick and Edward's brother George, Duke of Clarence , briefly re-installed Henry VI . Edward fled to Flanders , where he gathered support and invaded England in March 1471; after victories at
2806-536: The Duchy of Lancaster , along with several other offices. His brothers also benefited: John Neville, Lord Montagu , was made Warden of the East March in 1463, and the next year created Earl of Northumberland . George Neville , Bishop of Exeter , was confirmed in his post as chancellor by King Edward, and in 1465 promoted to the archbishopric of York . By late 1461, risings in the north had been put down, and in
2928-649: The Hundred Years' War , following his invasion of France in 1475, but he was assuaged by Louis XI in the Treaty of Picquigny . This treaty formally ended the Hundred Years' War, which had been in abeyance since the Battle of Castillon in 1453. Following his sudden death in April 1483, Edward was briefly succeeded by his son Edward V ; his younger brother, Richard, was appointed Lord Protector of England for
3050-415: The Second Battle of St Albans . He then joined forces with Prince Edward of York , the new Yorkist claimant to the crown, who had just won an important victory at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross . While Queen Margaret was hesitating to make her next move, Warwick and Edward hastened to London. The citizens of the capital were scared by the brutal conduct of the Lancastrian forces, and were sympathetic to
3172-563: The Siege of Neuss , Louis opened negotiations. Soon after Edward landed at Calais, the two signed the Treaty of Picquigny . Edward received an immediate payment of 75,000 crowns , plus a yearly pension of 50,000 crowns, thus allowing him to recoup the costs of his army. In 1482, Edward backed an attempt to usurp the Scottish throne by Alexander Stewart, 1st Duke of Albany , brother of James III of Scotland . Gloucester invaded Scotland and took
3294-612: The Wars of the Roses (1455–1487) in England . In game theory , a kingmaker is a player who lacks sufficient resources or position to win at a given game, but possesses enough remaining resources to decide which of the remaining viable players will eventually win. The term kingmaker , though always unofficial, has tended to gain more importance in places of power struggle—e.g., politics, sports organizations etc. Consequently, bestowal of such
3416-476: The lieutenancy of Ireland , while Gloucester was made Admiral of England and Warden of the West March . Clarence also received the earldoms of Warwick and Salisbury. The earl's land had been forfeited and taken into the king's custody. When Gloucester married Warwick's younger daughter Anne in 1472, who had been recently widowed by the death of Prince Edward, a dispute broke out between the two princes over
3538-402: The 1464 Battle of Hexham seemed to end the Lancastrian threat. This exposed internal divisions, particularly over foreign policy, which in this period largely focused on the relationship between England, France and the Duchy of Burgundy , with two of the parties manoeuvring to form an alliance against the third. Although Edward preferred Burgundy as a partner, he allowed Warwick to negotiate
3660-566: The Barons . Though Lytton portrayed Warwick as a tragic hero who embodied the ideals of chivalry, he was nevertheless one whose time was past. The late-nineteenth-century military historian Charles Oman acknowledged the earl's ability to appeal to popular sentiments, yet pointed out his deficiencies as a military commander. Oman found Warwick a traditional strategist, "not attaining the heights of military genius displayed by his pupil Edward." Paul Murray Kendall 's popular biography from 1957 took
3782-516: The Beauchamp and Despenser inheritances. A compromise was eventually reached, whereby the land was divided, but Clarence was not pacified. In 1477 he once again plotted against his brother. This time the king could no longer act with lenience, and the next year the Duke of Clarence was executed. "Thou setter-up and plucker-down of kings" — William Shakespeare ; Henry VI Early sources on Richard Neville fall into two categories. The first are
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3904-477: The Duke of Clarence, who held estates adjacent to the Neville heartland in the north. Concerned by this, Edward blocked a proposed marriage between Clarence and Warwick's eldest daughter Isabel . In early July, Clarence defied his brother by travelling to Calais, where he married Isabel in a ceremony conducted by George Neville and overseen by Warwick. The three men issued a 'remonstrance', listing alleged abuses by
4026-572: The Duke of York, who was short and dark. His youngest brother, who later became King Richard III , closely resembled their father. During Edward's youth, there was economic decline in England and military defeat abroad, exacerbated by a weak and corrupt central government. Both Edward and his younger brother Edmund, Earl of Rutland , were born in Rouen, where their father, the Duke of York, served as governor of English lands in France until 1445, when he
4148-541: The House of York. On 4 March the prince was proclaimed King Edward IV by an assembly that gathered quickly. The new king now headed north to consolidate his title, and met with the Lancastrian forces at Towton in Yorkshire. Warwick had suffered an injury to the leg the day before, in the Battle of Ferrybridge , and may have played only a minor part in the battle that followed. The unusually bloody battle resulted in
4270-401: The Kingmaker , was an English nobleman, administrator , landowner of the House of Neville fortune and military commander. The eldest son of Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury , he became Earl of Warwick through marriage, and was the wealthiest and most powerful English peer of his age, with political connections that went beyond the country's borders. One of the leaders in the Wars of
4392-453: The Lancastrian nobility were enormous and explain the enduring bitterness among those who survived. Since 1996, excavations have uncovered over 50 skeletons from the battle; an analysis of their injuries shows the brutality of the contest, including extensive post-mortem mutilations. Margaret fled to Scotland with Edward of Westminster, while the new king returned to London for his 28 June 1461 coronation . Henry VI remained at large for over
4514-482: The Northumbrian castles held by the Lancastrian rebels in the spring of 1464. This time no clemency was given, and around thirty of the rebel leaders were executed. At the negotiations with the French, Warwick had intimated that King Edward was interested in a marriage arrangement with the French crown, the intended bride being Louis XI 's sister-in-law, Bona , daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy . This marriage
4636-602: The Roses , originally on the Yorkist side but later switching to the Lancastrian side, he was instrumental in the deposition of two kings, which led to his epithet of " Kingmaker ". Through fortunes of marriage and inheritance, Warwick emerged in the 1450s at the centre of English politics. Originally, he was a supporter of King Henry VI ; however, a territorial dispute with Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset , led him to collaborate with Richard, Duke of York , in opposing
4758-466: The Tower. Then, in the spring of 1466, Warwick was sent to the continent to carry out negotiations with the French and Burgundians. The negotiations centred around a marriage proposal involving Edward's sister Margaret . Warwick increasingly came to favour French diplomatic connections. Meanwhile, Edward's father-in-law, Richard Woodville, Earl Rivers , who had been created treasurer , was in favour of
4880-479: The War of the Roses has been documented by numerous historians, Edward as an individual is less well known; 19th century historians like William Stubbs generally dismissed him as a bloodthirsty nonentity. The most comprehensive modern biography was written by Charles Ross in 1974, who concluded the peace and stability of his later reign was squandered in short-term aggrandisement. He further suggests that Edward "remains
5002-482: The Warwick title, as Henry's half-sisters were excluded from the succession. By 1445 Richard had become a knight, probably at Margaret of Anjou 's coronation on 30 May that year; also around this time, his illegitimate daughter, Margaret (who married Richard Huddleston on 12 June 1464) was born. He is visible in the historical record of service of King Henry VI in 1449, which makes mention of his services in
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5124-626: The Woodvilles and other advisors close to Edward and then returned to London, where they assembled an army to remove these 'evil councillors' and establish good government. With Edward still in the north, the royal army was defeated by a Neville force at Edgecote Moor on 24 July 1469. After the battle, Edward was held in Middleham Castle ; on 12 August, his father-in-law Richard Woodville and Richard's younger son, John Woodville , were executed at Kenilworth . It soon became clear there
5246-582: The Yorkist regime was deeply unpopular and the Lancastrians rapidly assembled an army of over 30,000; when John Neville switched sides, Edward narrowly escaped capture and was forced to seek refuge in Bruges . Edward took refuge in Flanders , part of the Duchy of Burgundy, accompanied by a few hundred men, including his younger brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, Anthony Woodville and William Hastings. The Duchy
5368-486: The Yorkists at Edgecote in 1469 and his defection confirmed Clarence's decision to switch sides; as they marched south, more recruits came in, including 3,000 at Leicester. Edward entered London unopposed and took Henry prisoner; Warwick was defeated and killed at the Battle of Barnet on 14 April, while a second Lancastrian army was destroyed at the Battle of Tewkesbury on 4 May. Sixteen-year-old Edward of Westminster,
5490-422: The abilities of his older brother, but was also jealous and overambitious. In July 1469, the two sailed over to Calais, where George was married to Warwick's daughter, Lady Isabel Neville. From there, they returned to England, where they gathered the men of Kent to join the rebellion in the north. Meanwhile, the king's forces were defeated at the Battle of Edgecote , where William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke ,
5612-451: The affairs of the other country (either directly or indirectly). In current political scenarios across the world the term can expand its scope to include powerful lobbying groups, whose role is often seen as a defining factor on major issues. Citizens of West African sub-national monarchies often use the word kingmaker to refer to the members of the electoral colleges that choose their sovereigns because they also usually officiate during
5734-401: The alliance was to restore Henry VI to the throne. Again, Warwick staged an uprising in the north, and with the king away, he and Clarence landed at Dartmouth and Plymouth on 13 September 1470. Among the many who flocked to Warwick's side was his brother Montagu, who had not taken part in the last rebellion, but was disappointed when his loyalty to the king had not been rewarded with
5856-420: The arms of his father-in-law, Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick , who bore his arms quartering Despenser (the arms of his wife Isabel le Despenser ) with an inescutcheon of De Clare, which Warwick showed in the fourth quarter. The second grand quarter showed the arms of Montagu (quartering Monthermer). The third grand quarter showed the arms of Neville differenced – rather honourably augmented – by
5978-490: The autumn of 1467, there were rumours that Warwick was now sympathetic to the Lancastrian cause, but even though he refused to come to court to answer the charges, the king accepted his denial in writing. In July 1468, it was revealed that Warwick's deputy in Calais, John, Lord Wenlock , was involved in a Lancastrian conspiracy, and early in 1469 another Lancastrian plot was uncovered, involving John de Vere, Earl of Oxford . It
6100-442: The battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury (where both the Earl of Warwick and Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales , were killed), he resumed the throne. Shortly afterwards, Henry VI was found dead in the Tower of London , possibly killed on Edward's orders. Despite facing an overseas threat from Henry Tudor , the last remaining Lancastrian claimant, Edward reigned in relative peace for the next twelve years. Edward nearly restarted
6222-572: The coronation rituals and rites of purification, the word in this particular case taking on a literal meaning i.e. a maker of the king. The term kingmaker is also used to describe situations in multi-player games where a player is either unable to win or has claimed an unassailable lead, but, in either case, plays a strong role in determining the outcome for other players. Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, 6th Earl of Salisbury KG (22 November 1428 – 14 April 1471), known as Warwick
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#17327721663046344-465: The daughters of the Earl and Countess of Warwick and heirs to their mother's considerable inheritance. Many of the estates held by the brothers had been granted by Edward, who could also remove them, making them dependent on his favour. This was not the case with property acquired through marriage and explains the importance of this dispute. The last significant rebellion ended in February 1474 with
6466-461: The defection of Warwick's Calais contingent under the command of Andrew Trollope . As it turned out, the majority of the soldiers were still reluctant to raise arms against the king. Forced to flee the country, York left for Dublin , Ireland, with his second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland , while Warwick and Salisbury sailed to Calais, accompanied by the Duke's son, Edward, Earl of March (the future King Edward IV). Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset ,
6588-418: The direct Lancastrian line exterminated, Edward could reign safely until his death in 1483. Warwick had no sons. His offices were divided between King Edward's brothers George, Duke of Clarence (who had married Warwick's daughter Isabel Neville ), and Richard, Duke of Gloucester, the future Richard III (who would marry Warwick's daughter Anne Neville ). Clarence received the chamberlainship of England and
6710-509: The duration of the new king's minority, but quickly seized the throne as Richard III . Edward was born on 28 April 1442 at Rouen in Normandy , eldest surviving son of Richard, 3rd Duke of York , and Cecily Neville . Until his father's death, he was known as the Earl of March . Both his parents were direct descendants of King Edward III , giving Edward a potential claim to the throne. This
6832-578: The economy recovered from the depression of 1450 to 1470 , Edward's spending habitually exceeded income; on his death in 1483, the Crown had less than £1,200 in cash. His close relationship with the London branch of the Medici Bank ended in its bankruptcy; in 1517, the Medicis were still seeking repayment of Edward's debts. Economics was closely linked to foreign policy; Edward's reign was dominated by
6954-660: The evidence for these is circumstantial. Edward IV's eldest son, also named Edward, was made Prince of Wales when he was seven months old and given his own household at the age of three. Based in Ludlow Castle , he was supervised by his uncle, Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers, who also acted as his regent for the Council of Wales and the Marches . The historical consensus is he and his brother Richard were killed, probably between July and September 1483; debate on who gave
7076-462: The family vault at Bisham Priory near the river Thames in Berkshire. No trace now remains of either the tomb or the church in which it was housed. On 4 May 1471, Edward IV defeated the remaining Lancastrian forces of Queen Margaret and Prince Edward at the Battle of Tewkesbury , where the prince was killed. Soon afterwards, it was reported that King Henry VI had also died in the Tower. With
7198-530: The first English printing press in the outbuildings of Westminster Abbey ; on 18 November 1477, he produced Sayengis of the Philosophres , translated into English for Edward by his brother-in-law Anthony Woodville . It is not known where or how Edward's library was stored, but it is recorded that he transferred volumes from the Great Wardrobe to Eltham Palace and that he had a yeoman "to kepe
7320-478: The funds instead to finance his household expenditures. Under his rule, ownership of the Duchy of Lancaster was transferred to the Crown, where it remains today. In 1478, his staff prepared the so-called 'Black Book', a comprehensive review of government finances, still in use a century later. He invested heavily in business ventures with the City of London , which he used as an additional source of funding. Although
7442-719: The garrison and patrol the English coast. In disregard of royal authority, he then conducted highly successful acts of piracy, against the Castilian fleet in May 1458, and against the Hanseatic fleet a few weeks later. He also used his time on the Continent to establish relations with Charles VII of France and Philip the Good of Burgundy . Developing a solid military reputation and with good international connections, he then brought
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#17327721663047564-481: The garrison and with the royal wool monopoly known as the staple , over payments in arrears, but in July Warwick finally took up his post. After the recent events, Queen Margaret still considered Warwick a threat to the throne, and cut off his supplies. In August 1457, however, a French attack on the English seaport of Sandwich set off fears of a full-scale French invasion. Warwick was again funded to protect
7686-424: The grounds his brother's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was invalid. The Titulus Regius argued that the alleged pre-contract of marriage between Edward IV and Lady Eleanor Talbot rendered his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville void. Both Eleanor and Edward were dead, but according to Philippe de Commines , Robert Stillington, Bishop of Bath and Wells, claimed to have carried out the ceremony himself. Once secure on
7808-502: The heir to the throne, died on the battlefield, with surviving leaders like Somerset executed shortly afterwards. This was followed by Henry's death a few days later; a contemporary chronicle claimed this was due to "melancholy" but it is generally assumed he was killed on Edward's orders. Although the Lancastrian cause seemed at an end, the regime was destabilised by a quarrel between Clarence and his brother Gloucester. The two were married to Isabel Neville and Anne Neville , respectively,
7930-586: The king's bookes". More than forty of his books survive intact from the 15th century, which suggests they were carefully stored, and are in the Royal Collection of manuscripts , held by the British Library. Edward spent large sums on Eltham Palace , including the extant Great Hall, the site of a feast for 2,000 people in December 1482, shortly before his death in April. He also began great improvements to St George's Chapel, Windsor , where he
8052-403: The king, and act as protector. This solution was not ideal to either party, and further conflict was inevitable. On 30 December, at the Battle of Wakefield , York was killed, as were York's second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland , and Warwick's younger brother Thomas . Salisbury was executed a day later. Warwick marched north to confront the enemy, but was defeated and forced to flee at
8174-420: The king, and the death of Somerset. York 's second protectorate that followed was even shorter-lived than the first. At the parliament of February 1456 the king —now under the influence of Queen Margaret —resumed personal government of the realm. By this time Warwick had taken over Salisbury 's role as York's main ally, even appearing at that same parliament to protect York from retributions. This conflict
8296-442: The king. At Northampton , on 10 July, King Henry was taken captive, while Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham and others were killed in battle. In September York arrived from Ireland, and at the parliament of October that year, the Duke walked up to the throne and put his hand on it. The act, signifying usurpation, left the assembly in shock. It is unclear whether Warwick had prior knowledge of York's plans, though it
8418-436: The king. From this conflict, he gained the strategically valuable post of Captain of Calais , a position that benefited him greatly in the years to come. The political conflict later turned into full-scale rebellion, where in battle York was slain, as was Warwick's father Salisbury. York's son, however, later triumphed with Warwick's assistance, and was crowned King Edward IV . Edward initially ruled with Warwick's support, but
8540-691: The lands known as the Burgundian Netherlands , became part of the Holy Roman Empire and France acquired the rest. Edward and his successors lost much of their imfluence. Edward's court was described by a visitor from Europe as "the most splendid ... in all Christendom ". He spent large amounts on expensive status symbols to show off his power and wealth as king of England, while his collecting habits show an eye for style and an interest in scholarship, particularly history. He acquired fine clothes, jewels, and furnishings, as well as
8662-575: The later Earl of Warwick, was born on 22 November 1428; little is known of his childhood. At the age of eight, in 1436, Richard was married to Lady Anne Beauchamp , daughter of Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick , and of his wife Isabel Despenser . This made him heir not only to the earldom of Salisbury, but also to a substantial part of the Montague, Beauchamp, and Despenser inheritance. Circumstances would, however, increase his fortune even further. Beauchamp's son Henry , who had married
8784-634: The long run, however, it proved impossible to rule without the king, and continuing disorder forced Warwick to release King Edward IV in September 1469. A modus vivendi had been achieved between Warwick and the king for some months, but the restoration of Henry Percy to Montagu's earldom of Northumberland prevented any chance of full reconciliation. A trap was set for the king when disturbances in Lincolnshire led him north, where he could be confronted by Warwick's men. Edward, however, discovered
8906-511: The loss of Gascony , an English possession for over 300 years. The Duke of York took over the government, his chief supporters being Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury , and Salisbury's eldest son, Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick . In January 1454, 12-year-old Edward accompanied his father to London to attend the Great Council . The birth of King Henry VI's son, Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales , in October 1453 created
9028-473: The losses, was appointed King Henry's chief minister. English politics became dominated by the struggle between the Yorkists and supporters of the House of Lancaster , or Lancastrians, notably the Duke of Somerset, William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk , and King Henry VI's wife, Margaret of Anjou . Matters came to a head in August 1453 when King Henry VI collapsed into a catatonic stupor on hearing news of
9150-484: The man he helped raise to the throne. The other perspective can be found in Shakespeare 's Henry VI trilogy: a man driven by pride and egotism, who created and deposed kings at will. In time, however, it is the latter view that dominated. The Enlightenment , or Whig historians of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, decried anyone who impeded the development towards a centralised, constitutional monarchy ,
9272-416: The marriage was an impulsive decision, but differ on whether it was also a "calculated political move". One view is the low status of the Woodvilles was part of the attraction, since unlike the Nevilles, they were reliant on Edward and thus more likely to remain loyal. Others argue if this was his purpose, there were far better options available; all agree it had significant political implications that impacted
9394-481: The new head of the Yorkist party. At this stage of Edward's career, contemporaries like Philippe de Commines described him as handsome, affable, and energetic. Unusually tall for the period at 6 feet 4 inches (193 centimetres), he was an impressive sight in armour, and took care to wear splendid clothes. This was done deliberately to contrast him with King Henry VI, whose physical and mental frailties undermined his position. On 2 February 1461, Edward won
9516-456: The new regime. Backed by wealthy Flemish merchants, in March 1471 Edward landed near Hull , close to his estates in Yorkshire. Supporters were reluctant to join him; the important northern city of York opened its gates only when he claimed to be seeking the return of his dukedom, like Henry IV seventy years earlier. The first significant contingent to join was a group of 600 men under William Parr and James Harrington . Parr fought against
9638-404: The only king in English history since 1066 in active possession of his throne who failed to secure the safe succession of his son. His lack of political foresight is largely to blame for the unhappy aftermath of his early death." Commentators observe a marked difference between Edward's first period as king, and the second. The failure of attempts to reconcile former enemies like Somerset meant he
9760-538: The orders, and why, continues, although their uncle Richard III was the beneficiary. By mid-August, Elizabeth Woodville was certain of the deaths of her sons; after her initial grief turned to fury, she opened secret talks with Margaret Beaufort. She promised her support in return for Henry's agreement to marry her eldest daughter Elizabeth. In December 1483, Henry swore an oath to do so, which he duly carried out after his coronation in October 1485. Prior to his succession, Richard III declared his nephews illegitimate, on
9882-623: The other hand, while Warwick could not easily suffer his treatment by the king, it was equally impossible for Edward to accept the earl's presence on the political scene. As long as Warwick remained as powerful and influential as he was, Edward could not fully assert his royal authority, and eventual confrontation became inevitable. However, the memories written in Burgundy had a negative view of him. For example, according to Philippe de Commynes and Olivier de la Marche , Georges Chastellain , who all mention Edward's popularity and character, Warwick
10004-526: The plot when Robert, Lord Welles , was routed at Losecote Field in Rutland in March 1470, and gave away the plan. Warwick soon gave up, and once more fled the country with Clarence. Denied access to Calais, they sought refuge with King Louis XI of France. Louis arranged a reconciliation between Warwick and Margaret of Anjou, and as part of the agreement, Margaret and Henry's son, Edward, Prince of Wales, would marry Warwick's daughter Anne. The objective of
10126-408: The power that he had lost. This was not enough to cause a complete fallout between the two men, though from this point on Warwick increasingly stayed away from court. The promotion of Warwick's brother George to Archbishop of York shows that the earl was still in favour with the king. In July 1465, when Henry VI was once more captured, it was Warwick who escorted the fallen king to his captivity in
10248-433: The refusal of the French diplomatic channel—were significant. His claim to prominence in national affairs was not a product of illusions of grandeur; it was confirmed by the high standing he enjoyed among the princes on the continent. Furthermore, Warwick's cause was not considered unjust by his contemporaries, which can be seen by the earl's popularity exceeding that of the king at the time of his first rebellion in 1469. On
10370-520: The remains of his father and brother at Bisham Priory , and in March he attended parliament at Westminster . That same spring, however, the north rose up in rebellion once more, when Ralph Percy laid siege to Norham Castle . Warwick returned to the north and rescued Norham in July, but the Lancastrians were left in possession of Northumberland , and the government decided on a diplomatic approach instead. Separate truces were negotiated with Scotland and France by late 1463, which allowed Warwick to retake
10492-728: The rest of Edward's reign. One reason for this was that twelve of the new queen's siblings survived into adulthood, creating a large pool of competitors for offices and estates, as well as in the matrimony market. Resentment built when her sisters made a series of advantageous unions, including that of Catherine Woodville to Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham ; Anne Woodville to William, heir to Henry Bourchier, 1st Earl of Essex ; and Eleanor Woodville with Anthony, heir to Edmund Grey, 1st Earl of Kent . In 1467, Edward dismissed his Lord Chancellor , Warwick's brother George Neville, Archbishop of York . Warwick responded by building an alliance with Edward's disaffected younger brother and heir,
10614-456: The restoration of his earldom. This time the trap set up for the king worked; as Edward hurried south, Montagu's forces approached from the north, and the king found himself surrounded. On 2 October he fled to Flanders , a part of the Duchy of Burgundy . King Henry was now restored, with Warwick acting as the true ruler in his capacity as lieutenant. At a parliament in November, Edward
10736-499: The summer of 1462, Warwick negotiated a truce with Scotland. In October the same year, Margaret of Anjou invaded England with troops from France, and managed to take the castles of Alnwick and Bamburgh . Warwick had to organise the recapture of the castles, which was accomplished by January 1463. The leaders of the rebellion, including Ralph Percy , were pardoned and left in charge of the retaken castles. At this point, Warwick felt secure enough to travel south; in February he buried
10858-457: The surrender of John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford , who survived to command the Lancastrian army at Bosworth in 1485. Clarence was widely suspected of involvement, a factor in his eventual execution in the Tower on 18 February 1478; claims he was "drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine" appears to have been a joke by Edward, referring to his favourite drink. In 1475, Edward allied with Burgundy and declared war on France. With Duke Charles busy with
10980-510: The sympathetic chronicles of the early Yorkist years, or works based on these, such as the Mirror for Magistrates (1559). The other category originates with chronicles commissioned by Edward IV after Warwick's fall, such as the Historie of the arrivall of Edward IV , and take a more negative view of the earl. The Mirror portrayed Warwick as a great man: beloved by the people, and betrayed by
11102-609: The term can also be applied to institutions or think tanks whose opinions are held in great regard by the interested organization. The influence of the religious orders like the Roman Catholic Church in running the affairs of the state during medieval times (through the king) is a well-known example. Kingdoms and empires in the Indian sub-continent often relied on their religious heads. Besides religious orders, even countries can fit into this terminology when they can dictate
11224-459: The three started raising troops. Marching towards London, they encountered the king at St Albans , where the two forces clashed. The battle was brief and not particularly bloody, but it was the first instance of armed hostilities between the forces of the Houses of York and Lancaster in the conflict known as the Wars of the Roses . It was also significant because it resulted in the capture of
11346-401: The three-sided diplomatic contest between England, France, and Burgundy, with two of the three seeking to ally against the third. As Flemish merchants were the largest buyers of English wool, Edward was generally pro-Burgundian, although Duke Charles' reluctance to support him in 1471 cooled their relationship. The death of Charles in 1477 led to the 1482 Treaty of Arras ; Flanders, along with
11468-543: The throne, Henry VII annulled the Titulus Regius and arrested Stillington, who died in prison in 1491. Despite this apparent resolution, the Yorkist cause continued well into the 16th century. The most famous are the pretenders Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck , but Yorkist challengers remained a concern for Henry VII and his son. In 1541, Henry VIII executed Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury , daughter of
11590-410: The title of Earl of Westmorland . Ralph's son Richard , the later Earl of Warwick's father, was a younger son by a second marriage, and not heir to the earldom. He received a favourable settlement, however, and became jure uxoris ("by right of his wife") Earl of Salisbury through his marriage to Alice , daughter and heiress of Thomas Montagu, 4th Earl of Salisbury . Salisbury's son Richard,
11712-421: The town of Edinburgh , but not Edinburgh Castle , where James was being held prisoner by his nobles. Albany switched sides and without siege equipment, the English army was forced to withdraw, with little to show for an expensive campaign, apart from the capture of Berwick Castle . Edward's health began to fail, and he became subject to an increasing number of ailments; his physicians attributed this in part to
11834-490: The two armies met at Barnet . Fog and poor visibility on the field led to confusion, and the Lancastrian army ended up attacking its own men. In the face of defeat Warwick attempted to escape the field, but was struck off his horse and killed. Warwick's body—along with that of his brother Montagu, who had also fallen at Barnet—was displayed in London's St Paul's Cathedral to quell any rumours of their survival. Then they were handed over to Archbishop Neville, to be buried in
11956-518: The two later fell out over foreign policy and the king's choice to marry Elizabeth Woodville . After a failed plot to crown Edward's brother, George, Duke of Clarence , Warwick instead restored Henry VI to the throne . The triumph was short-lived, however: on 14 April 1471, Warwick was defeated by Edward at the Battle of Barnet , and killed. Warwick's historical legacy has been a matter of much dispute. Historical opinion has alternated between seeing him as self-centred and rash, and regarding him as
12078-463: The two men. Then, in the summer of that year, King Henry fell ill. Somerset was a favourite of the king and Queen Margaret , and with the king incapacitated he was virtually in complete control of the government. This put Warwick at a disadvantage in his dispute with Somerset, and drove him into collaboration with York . The political climate, influenced by the military defeat in France , then started turning against Somerset. On 27 March 1454,
12200-457: The way Warwick did in his struggles with Edward. David Hume called Warwick "the greatest, as well as the last, of those mighty barons who formerly overawed the crown, and rendered the people incapable of any regular system of civil government." Later writers were split between admiration for some of Warwick's character traits, and condemnation of his political actions. The romantic novelist Lord Lytton picked up on Hume's theme in his The Last of
12322-446: The younger Richard's sister Cecily , died in 1446. When Henry's daughter Anne died in 1449, Richard also found himself jure uxoris Earl of Warwick. Richard's succession to the estates did not go undisputed, however. A protracted battle over parts of the inheritance ensued, particularly with Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset , who had married a daughter from Richard Beauchamp's first marriage. The dispute centred on land, not on
12444-533: Was Jane Shore , later compelled by Richard III to perform public penance at Paul's Cross ; Thomas More claimed this backfired, since "albeit she were out of al array save her kyrtle only: yet went she so fair & lovely ... that her great shame wan her much praise." Edward had several acknowledged illegitimate children; There are claims for many others, including Mary, second wife of Henry Harman of Ellam, and Isabel Mylbery (born circa 1470), who married John Tuchet, son of John Tuchet, 6th Baron Audley . However,
12566-412: Was King of England from 4 March 1461 to 3 October 1470, then again from 11 April 1471 until his death in 1483. He was a central figure in the Wars of the Roses , a series of civil wars in England fought between the Yorkist and Lancastrian factions between 1455 and 1487. Edward inherited the Yorkist claim to the throne at the age of eighteen when his father, Richard, Duke of York , was killed at
12688-468: Was attainted of his lands and titles, and Clarence was awarded the Duchy of York . At this point, international affairs intervened. Louis XI declared war on Burgundy, and Charles the Bold responded by granting an expeditionary force to Edward IV, in order to reclaim his throne. On 14 March 1471, Edward landed at Ravenspurn in Yorkshire, with the acquiescence of the Earl of Northumberland. Warwick
12810-412: Was a clear demonstration he was not in control of the king, despite suggestions to the contrary. Edward's motives have been widely discussed by contemporaries and historians. Although Elizabeth's mother, Jacquetta of Luxembourg , came from the upper nobility, her father, Richard Woodville, Lord Rivers , was a middle-ranking provincial baron. The Privy Council told Edward with unusual frankness that "she
12932-409: Was also a pivotal period in Warwick's career, as it was resolved by his appointment as Constable of Calais . The post was to provide him with a vital power base in the following years of conflict. The continental town of Calais , conquered from France in 1347, was not only of vital strategic importance, it also held what was England's largest standing army . There were some initial disputes, with
13054-430: Was appointed to replace Warwick as Captain of Calais, but the Yorkists managed to hold on to the garrison. In March 1460 Warwick visited York in Ireland to plan the way ahead, and returned to Calais. Then, on 26 June, he landed at Sandwich with Salisbury and March, and from here the three earls rode north to London. Salisbury was left to besiege the Tower of London , while Warwick took March with him in pursuit of
13176-431: Was becoming clear that the discontent with Edward's reign was widespread, a fact that Warwick could exploit. Warwick now orchestrated a rebellion in Yorkshire while he was away, led by a " Robin of Redesdale ". Part of Warwick's plan was winning over King Edward's younger brother, George Plantagenet, possibly with the prospect of installing him on the throne. The nineteen-year-old George had shown himself to share many of
13298-618: Was buried in 1483; later completed by Henry VII, it was badly damaged during the First English Civil War , and little of the original work remains. Edward had ten children by Elizabeth Woodville , seven of whom survived him; they were declared illegitimate under the 1484 Titulus Regius , an act repealed by Henry VII, who married Edward's eldest daughter, Elizabeth. Edward had numerous mistresses, including Lady Eleanor Talbot and Elizabeth Lucy , possibly daughter of Thomas Waite (or Wayte), of Southampton. The most famous
13420-587: Was compensated with the title Marquess of Montagu , but this was a significant demotion for a key supporter. In March 1470, Warwick and Clarence exploited a private feud to start the 1470 Lincolnshire Rebellion ; when it was defeated, the two fled to France in May 1470. Seeing an opportunity, Louis XI persuaded Warwick to negotiate with his enemy, Margaret of Anjou; she eventually agreed, first making him kneel before her in silence for fifteen minutes. With French support, Warwick landed in England on 9 September 1470 and announced his intention to restore Henry. By now,
13542-506: Was hastily appointed king, before marching north, where the two sides met at the Battle of Towton . Fought on 29 March in the middle of a snowstorm, it was the bloodiest battle ever to take place on English soil, and ended in a decisive Yorkist victory. Estimates of the dead range from 9,000 to 20,000; figures are uncertain, as most of the mass graves were emptied or moved over the centuries, while corpses were generally stripped of clothing or armour before burial. Nevertheless, casualties among
13664-470: Was killed. The other commander, Humphrey Stafford, Earl of Devon , was caught in flight and lynched by a mob. Later, Earl Rivers and his son, John Woodville , were also apprehended and murdered. With his army now defeated, King Edward IV was taken under arrest by George Neville. Warwick then imprisoned the king in Warwick Castle , and in August, the king was taken north to Middleham Castle . In
13786-559: Was little support for Warwick or Clarence; Edward was released in September and resumed the throne. Outwardly, the situation remained unchanged, but tensions persisted and Edward did nothing to reduce the Nevilles' sense of vulnerability. The Percys, traditional rivals of the Neville family in the North, fought for Lancaster at Towton; their titles and estates were confiscated and given to Warwick's brother John Neville. In early 1470, Edward reinstated Henry Percy as Earl of Northumberland ; John
13908-405: Was no wife for a prince such as himself, for she was not the daughter of a duke or earl." The marriage was certainly unwise and unusual, although not unheard of; Henry VI's mother, Catherine of Valois , married her chamberlain, Owen Tudor . By all accounts, Elizabeth possessed considerable charm of person and intellect, while Edward was used to getting what he wanted. Historians generally accept
14030-402: Was not to be, however, because in September 1464, Edward revealed that he was already married, to Elizabeth Woodville . The marriage caused great offence to Warwick: not only due to the fact that his plans had been sabotaged, but also the secrecy with which the king had acted. The marriage—contracted on 1 May of the same year—was not made public before Warwick pressed Edward on the issue at
14152-406: Was noticeably more ruthless after 1471, including the execution of his brother Clarence. In his youth, Edward was a capable and charismatic military commander, who led from the front, but as he grew older, the energy noted by contemporaries became less apparent. One effect of this was that Parliament became increasingly reluctant to approve taxes for wars which Edward failed to prosecute, then used
14274-552: Was only with Henry's evil counsellors. In 1460, Edward crossed the English Channel with Warwick and Salisbury, and marched into London. At Northampton in July, he commanded one of three divisions in a Yorkist victory that led to the capture of Henry VI. York returned from Ireland; on entering the Palace of Westminster , he declared himself king, a claim greeted by the assembled lords in silence. The Act of Accord agreed
14396-592: Was replaced by Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset . Edward and Edmund were probably brought up at Ludlow Castle , in the Welsh Marches , where the Duke of York was the dominant landowner. In 1447, the Duke of York was made chief governor of Ireland , although he did not take up the post until 1449. Most of Normandy was recaptured by the French, leaving Calais as the last English possession in Northern France; Somerset, whom many held responsible for
14518-626: Was ruled by Charles the Bold , husband of his sister Margaret; he provided minimal help, something Edward never forgot. The restored Lancastrian regime faced the same issue that dominated Henry's previous reign. Mental and physical frailties made him incapable of ruling and resulted in an internal struggle for control, made worse because the coalition that put him back on the throne consisted of bitter enemies. Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset , held Warwick responsible for his father 's death in 1455, while he had executed his elder brother in 1464; Warwick and Clarence quickly found themselves isolated by
14640-483: Was sage and cunning, and much richer than Edward, but he was very hated. In addition, unlike his brother John Nevill and Edward, he was not brave. A Burgundy historian Jean de Wavrin criticized him more bitterly than other Burgundians. Henry VI, Part 2 and Henry VI, Part 3 by William Shakespeare The Earl of Warwick's coat of arms was unusually complex for the period, with seven different quarterings in an unusual order. The first grand quarter consists of
14762-421: Was still waiting for Queen Margaret and her son Edward, who were supposed to bring reinforcements from France, but were kept on the continent by bad weather. At this point, Edward received the support of his brother Clarence, who realised that he had been disadvantaged by the new agreement with the Lancastrians. Clarence's defection weakened Warwick, who nevertheless went in pursuit of Edward. On 14 April 1471
14884-421: Was strengthened in 1447, when York became heir to the childless King Henry VI on the death of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester . Allegations of illegitimacy were discounted at the time as politically inspired, and by later historians. Edward and his siblings George, Duke of Clarence , and Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy , were physically very similar, all three being tall and blonde, in contrast to their father,
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