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60-536: The district is divided into four administrative divisions, Mzenga, Chole, Sungwi, and Maneromango, each of which has 17 Wards and 235 hamlets. The Kisarawe District is administratively divided into 17 wards: Temperatures in the District range from 28 °C to 30 °C, with a mean of 29 °C. There are two main rainy seasons : the short rains, or " Vuli ," begin in October and go through December, while

120-423: A laboratory requiring a water sample to be collected, preserved, transported, and analyzed at another location. The process of water sampling introduces two significant problems: Sample preservation may partially resolve the second problem. A common procedure is keeping samples cold to slow the rate of chemical reactions and phase change, and analyzing the sample as soon as possible; but this merely minimizes

180-605: A 500 Ha industrial area in Visegese, Kisarawe ward, as a designated location for investments in the manufacturing businesses. A significant portion of the forest reserves in the Kisarawe District provide many of the district's resources. Up until 2006, there were five forest reserves totaling roughly 10,588.5 Hectares, namely; Masanganya Forest Reserve, Chakenge Forest Reserve, Pugu Hills Forest Reserve , Kazimzumbwi Forest Reserve , and Kisanga Forest Reserve. Kisarawe

240-602: A considerable length of time might pass before water quality returns to pre-disaster levels. For example, following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami the Colombo-based International Water Management Institute (IWMI) monitored the effects of saltwater and concluded that the wells recovered to pre-tsunami drinking water quality one and a half years after the event. IWMI developed protocols for cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater; these were subsequently officially endorsed by

300-584: A distinct rainy season. Also subtropical areas like Florida , South and Southeast Texas, and southern Louisiana in the United States have a rainy season. Monsoon regions include the Indian subcontinent , Southeast Asia (including Indonesia and Philippines ), northern sections of Australia , Polynesia , Central America , western and southern Mexico , the Desert Southwest of

360-481: A general reading of water quality. One example is the IOWATER volunteer water monitoring program of Iowa , which includes an EPT indicator key. Bivalve molluscs are largely used as bioindicators to monitor the health of aquatic environments in both fresh water and the marine environments. Their population status or structure, physiology, behaviour or the level of contamination with elements or compounds can indicate

420-606: A health hazard for non-drinking purposes such as irrigation, swimming, fishing, rafting, boating, and industrial uses. These conditions may also affect wildlife, which use the water for drinking or as a habitat. According to the EPA, water quality laws generally specify protection of fisheries and recreational use and require, as a minimum, retention of current quality standards. In some locations, desired water quality conditions include high dissolved oxygen concentrations, low chlorophyll-a concentrations, and high water clarity . There

480-454: A large amount of sample data and water quality criteria for elements sometimes identified as heavy metals . Water analysis for heavy metals must consider soil particles suspended in the water sample. These suspended soil particles may contain measurable amounts of metal. Although the particles are not dissolved in the water, they may be consumed by people drinking the water. Adding acid to a water sample to prevent loss of dissolved metals onto

540-652: A region, the greater the number of taxa from these orders, the better the water quality. Organisations in the United States, such as EPA. offer guidance on developing a monitoring program and identifying members of these and other aquatic insect orders. Many US wastewater dischargers (e.g., factories, power plants, refineries , mines, municipal sewage treatment plants) are required to conduct periodic whole effluent toxicity (WET) tests. Individuals interested in monitoring water quality who cannot afford or manage lab scale analysis can also use biological indicators to get

600-455: A set of standards against which compliance, generally achieved through treatment of the water, can be assessed. The most common standards used to monitor and assess water quality convey the health of ecosystems , safety of human contact, extent of water pollution and condition of drinking water . Water quality has a significant impact on water supply and often determines supply options. Over time, there has been increasing recognition of

660-639: A wet season in the winter months. Similarly, the wet season in the Negev Desert of Israel extends from October through May. At the boundary between the Mediterranean and monsoon climates lies the Sonoran Desert , which receives the two rainy seasons associated with each climate regime. The wet season is known by many different local names throughout the world. For example, in Mexico it

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720-472: Is polluted or not. In fact, water quality is a complex subject, in part because water is a complex medium intrinsically tied to the ecology , geology , and anthropogenic activities of a region. Industrial and commercial activities (e.g. manufacturing , mining , construction , transport ) are a major cause of water pollution as are runoff from agricultural areas, urban runoff and discharge of treated and untreated sewage . The water policy of

780-514: Is a list of indicators often measured by situational category: Biological monitoring metrics have been developed in many places, and one widely used family of measurements for freshwater is the presence and abundance of members of the insect orders Ephemeroptera , Plecoptera and Trichoptera (EPT) (of benthic macroinvertebrates whose common names are, respectively, mayfly, stonefly and caddisfly). EPT indexes will naturally vary from region to region, but generally, within

840-429: Is concerned, there are widespread views on the best course of action to take and a variety of methods can be employed. The key basic water quality parameters that need to be addressed in an emergency are bacteriological indicators of fecal contamination, free chlorine residual, pH , turbidity and possibly conductivity / total dissolved solids . There are many decontamination methods. After major natural disasters,

900-823: Is discharged into a nearby drainage channel or surface water drain without sufficient treatment, or is used in agricultural irrigation. Dissolved ions may affect the suitability of water for a range of industrial and domestic purposes. The most familiar of these is probably the presence of calcium (Ca ) and magnesium (Mg ) that interfere with the cleaning action of soap , and can form hard sulfate and soft carbonate deposits in water heaters or boilers . Hard water may be softened to remove these ions. The softening process often substitutes sodium cations. For certain populations, hard water may be preferable to soft water because health problems have been associated with calcium deficiencies and with excess sodium. The necessity for additional calcium and magnesium in water depends on

960-615: Is equally distributed throughout the year. Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break in rainfall mid-season, when the Intertropical Convergence Zone or monsoon trough moves to higher latitudes in the middle of the warm season. When the wet season occurs during a warm season, or summer , precipitation falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening. In the wet season, air quality improves, fresh water quality improves, and vegetation grows substantially, leading to crop yields late in

1020-510: Is known as "storm season". Different names are given to the various short "seasons" of the year by the First Nations of Northern Australia : the wet season typically experienced there from December to March is called Gudjewg . The precise meaning of the word is disputed, although it is widely accepted to relate to the severe thunderstorms, flooding, and abundant vegetation growth commonly experienced at this time. In tropical areas, when

1080-404: Is opened for exposure to the atmosphere when the sample of interest is collected, then resealed and transported to the laboratory with the sample for analysis to determine if sample collection or holding procedures introduced any measurable amount of the chemical of interest. The second artificial sample is collected with the sample of interest, but then "spiked" with a measured additional amount of

1140-460: Is some desire among the public to return water bodies to pristine, or pre-industrial conditions. Most current environmental laws focus on the designation of particular uses of a water body. In some countries these designations allow for some water contamination as long as the particular type of contamination is not harmful to the designated uses. Given the landscape changes (e.g., land development , urbanization , clearcutting in forested areas) in

1200-469: Is the ancestral home of the Zaramo people . The district has a total population of 101,598 as of the 2012 Census, 50,631 males and 50,967 females, with an annual growth rate of 2.1% and an average family size of 4 people. Rainy seasons The wet season (sometimes called the rainy season or monsoon season ) is the time of year when most of a region's average annual rainfall occurs. Generally,

1260-609: Is usually sampled and analyzed at laboratories, since the late 20th century there has been increasing public interest in the quality of drinking water provided by municipal systems. Many water utilities have developed systems to collect real-time data about source water quality. In the early 21st century, a variety of sensors and remote monitoring systems have been deployed for measuring water pH, turbidity, dissolved oxygen and other parameters. Some remote sensing systems have also been developed for monitoring ambient water quality in riverine, estuarine and coastal water bodies. The following

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1320-568: The European Union is primarily codified in three directives : Water quality guidelines for South Africa are grouped according to potential user types (e.g. domestic, industrial) in the 1996 Water Quality Guidelines. Drinking water quality is subject to the South African National Standard (SANS) 241 Drinking Water Specification. In England and Wales acceptable levels for drinking water supply are listed in

1380-667: The World Health Organization as part of its series of Emergency Guidelines. The simplest methods of chemical analysis are those measuring chemical elements without respect to their form. Elemental analysis for oxygen , as an example, would indicate a concentration of 890 g/L ( grams per litre ) of water sample because oxygen (O) has 89% mass of the water molecule (H 2 O). The method selected to measure dissolved oxygen should differentiate between diatomic oxygen and oxygen combined with other elements. The comparative simplicity of elemental analysis has produced

1440-634: The watersheds of many freshwater bodies, returning to pristine conditions would be a significant challenge. In these cases, environmental scientists focus on achieving goals for maintaining healthy ecosystems and may concentrate on the protection of populations of endangered species and protecting human health. The complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in the many types of measurements of water quality indicators. Some measurements of water quality are most accurately made on-site, because water exists in equilibrium with its surroundings . Measurements commonly made on-site and in direct contact with

1500-424: The "Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2000." In the United States, Water Quality Standards are defined by state agencies for various water bodies, guided by the desired uses for the water body (e.g., fish habitat, drinking water supply, recreational use). The Clean Water Act (CWA) requires each governing jurisdiction (states, territories, and covered tribal entities) to submit a set of biennial reports on

1560-744: The United States, southern Guyana , and northeast Brazil . Northern Guyana has two wet seasons: one in early spring and the other in early winter. In western Africa, there are two rainy seasons across southern sections, but only one across the north. Within the Mediterranean climate regime, the west coast of the United States, the southwest coast of Australia and South Africa, the Mediterranean coastline of Italy, Spain, Greece, Lebanon, Syria, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and Turkey, as well as areas further inland in Western Asia which include Jordan, Northern Iraq and most parts of Iran, experience

1620-410: The aid agencies as relief operations get underway to try and restore basic infrastructure and provide the basic fundamental items that are necessary for survival and subsequent recovery. The threat of disease increases hugely due to the large numbers of people living close together, often in squalid conditions, and without proper sanitation. After a natural disaster , as far as water quality testing

1680-403: The beginning of the wet season. The onset of the rainy season signals the departure of the monarch butterfly from Mexico. Tropical species of butterflies show larger dot markings on their wings to fend off possible predators and are more active during the wet season than the dry season . Within the tropics and warmer areas of the subtropics, decreased salinity of near shore wetlands due to

1740-405: The changes rather than preventing them. A useful procedure for determining influence of sample containers during delay between sample collection and analysis involves preparation for two artificial samples in advance of the sampling event. One sample container is filled with water known from previous analysis to contain no detectable amount of the chemical of interest. This sample, called a "blank",

1800-554: The charging of local aquifers during the wet season. Water also softens, as the concentration of dissolved materials reduces during the rainy season. Erosion is also increased during rainy periods. Arroyos that are dry at other times of the year fill with runoff, in some cases with water as deep as 10 feet (3.0 m). Leaching of soils during periods of heavy rainfall depletes nutrients. The higher runoff from land masses affects nearby ocean areas, which are more stratified , or less mixed, due to stronger surface currents forced by

1860-410: The chemical of interest at the time of collection. The blank ( negative control ) and spiked sample ( positive control ) are carried with the sample of interest and analyzed by the same methods at the same times to determine any changes indicating gains or losses during the elapsed time between collection and analysis. After events such as earthquakes and tsunamis , there is an immediate response by

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1920-459: The cost and the need of infrastructure on the sampling location. Many contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most commonly in association with rain events. For this reason "grab" samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying contaminant levels. Scientists gathering this type of data often employ auto-sampler devices that pump increments of water at either time or discharge intervals. More complex measurements are often made in

1980-620: The district. The primary crop farmed in Kisarawe is cassava, which is both a food crop and a source of income. The best cassava in the area is grown in Kisarawe, and the biggest cassava markets are in Dar es Salaam, Kibaha, Mkuranga, and Rufiji. The District does not have any other major industrial enterprises other from a privately owned cement factory in Kisarawe Town; a detergent factory is currently being built. The district has designated

2040-411: The general public include on-site test kits, commonly used for home fish tanks , and biological assessment procedures. Biosensors have the potential for "high sensitivity, selectivity, reliability, simplicity, low-cost and real-time response". For instance, bionanotechnologists reported the development of ROSALIND 2.0 , that can detect levels of diverse water pollutants. Although water quality

2100-740: The heavy rainfall runoff. High rainfall can cause widespread flooding, which can lead to landslides and mudflows in mountainous areas. Such floods cause rivers to burst their banks and submerge homes. The Ghaggar-Hakra River , which only flows during India's monsoon season, can flood and severely damage local crops. Floods can be exacerbated by fires that occurred during the previous dry season, which cause soils which are sandy or composed of loam to become hydrophobic, or water repellent. In various ways governments may help people deal with wet season floods. Flood plain mapping identifies which areas are more prone to flooding. Instructions on controlling erosion through outreach are also provided by telephone or

2160-692: The importance of drinking water quality and its impact on public health . This has led to increasing protection and management of water quality. The understanding of the links between water quality and health continues to grow and highlight new potential health crises: from the chronic impacts of infectious diseases on child development through stunting to new evidence on the harms from known contaminants, such as manganese with growing evidence of neurotoxicity in children. In addition, there are many emerging water quality issues—such as microplastics , perfluorinated compounds , and antimicrobial resistance . The parameters for water quality are determined by

2220-571: The intended use. Work in the area of water quality tends to be focused on water that is treated for potability, industrial/domestic use, or restoration (of an environment/ecosystem, generally for health of human/aquatic life). Contaminants that may be in untreated water include microorganisms such as viruses , protozoa and bacteria ; inorganic contaminants such as salts and metals ; organic chemical contaminants from industrial processes and petroleum use; pesticides and herbicides ; and radioactive contaminants. Water quality depends on

2280-565: The internet. The wet season is the main period of vegetation growth within the Savanna climate regime. However, this also means that wet season is a time for food shortages before crops reach their full maturity. This causes seasonal weight changes for people in developing countries, with a drop occurring during the wet season until the time of the first harvest, when weights rebound. Malaria incidence increases during periods of high temperature and heavy rainfall. Cows calve, or give birth, at

2340-746: The local geology and ecosystem , as well as human uses such as sewage dispersion, industrial pollution, use of water bodies as a heat sink , and overuse (which may lower the level of the water). The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) limits the amounts of certain contaminants in tap water provided by US public water systems . The Safe Drinking Water Act authorizes EPA to issue two types of standards: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations establish limits for contaminants in bottled water . Drinking water, including bottled water, may reasonably be expected to contain at least small amounts of some contaminants. The presence of these contaminants does not necessarily indicate that

2400-463: The local climate and context. Shocks that are linked to weather include water shortages, heavy rain and temperature extremes. They can damage water infrastructure through erosion under heavy rainfall and floods, cause loss of water sources in droughts, and make water quality deteriorate. Climate change can reduce lower water quality in several ways: In the setting of standards, agencies make political and technical/scientific decisions based on how

2460-564: The long rains begin in March and last through early June. The district's eastern portion, which includes the Sungwi division, averages 1400 to 1,600 millimetres of rain per year; the western portion, which includes the Chole and Mzenga divisions, averages 1000 millimetres. In Kisarawe, the agricultural sector employs practically all of the population. Cassava , coconuts , and cashew nuts are among

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2520-421: The monsoon arrives, high daytime high temperatures drop and overnight low temperatures increase, thus reducing diurnal temperature variation . During the wet season, a combination of heavy rainfall and, in some places such as Hong Kong , an onshore wind, improve air quality . In Brazil, the wet season is correlated with weaker trade winds off the ocean. The pH level of water becomes more balanced due to

2580-425: The parameters and environmental conditions that impact the water quality of a region, which in turn helps to identify the sources and fates of contaminants . Environmental lawyers and policymakers work to define legislation with the intention that water is maintained at an appropriate quality for its identified use. Another general perception of water quality is that of a simple property that tells whether water

2640-606: The past 30 years and is now on the fifth version (SASS5) which has been specifically modified in accordance with international standards, namely the ISO/IEC 17025 protocol. The SASS5 method is used by the South African Department of Water Affairs as a standard method for River Health Assessment, which feeds the national River Health Programme and the national Rivers Database. Weather and its related shocks can affect water quality in several ways. These depend on

2700-457: The population in question because people generally satisfy their recommended amounts through food. Environmental water quality , also called ambient water quality, relates to water bodies such as lakes , rivers , and oceans . Water quality standards for surface waters vary significantly due to different environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended human uses. Toxic substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can present

2760-409: The principal cash crops . Tropical fruits like mangoes , jackfruit , and pineapple are also abundantly grown. Grown food crops include sweet potatoes , maize , rice , sorghum , and cassava (a major food). A total of 30,000 hectares, or 0.78%, of the district's 380,000 hectares of arable land have been cultivated. Numerous crops can be cultivated because to the rich soil and abundant rainfall in

2820-426: The quality of water in their area. These reports are known as the 303(d) and 305(b) reports, named for their respective CWA provisions, and are submitted to, and approved by, EPA. These reports are completed by the governing jurisdiction, typically a state environmental agency . EPA recommends that each state submit a single "Integrated Report" comprising its list of impaired waters and the status of all water bodies in

2880-417: The rains causes an increase in crocodile nesting. Other species, such as the arroyo toad , spawn within the couple of months after the seasonal rains. Armadillos and rattlesnakes seek higher ground. Water quality Water quality refers to the chemical , physical , and biological characteristics of water based on the standards of its usage. It is most frequently used by reference to

2940-637: The sample container may dissolve more metals from suspended soil particles. Filtration of soil particles from the water sample before acid addition, however, may cause loss of dissolved metals onto the filter. The complexities of differentiating similar organic molecules are even more challenging. Making these complex measurements can be expensive. Because direct measurements of water quality can be expensive, ongoing monitoring programs are typically conducted and results released by government agencies . However, there are local volunteer programs and resources available for some general assessment. Tools available to

3000-747: The season lasts at least one month. The term green season is also sometimes used as a euphemism by tourist authorities. Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of the tropics and subtropics . Under the Köppen climate classification , for tropical climates , a wet season month is defined as a month where average precipitation is 60 millimetres (2.4 in) or more. In contrast to areas with savanna climates and monsoon regimes, Mediterranean climates have wet winters and dry summers. Dry and rainy months are characteristic of tropical seasonal forests : in contrast to tropical rainforests , which do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall

3060-412: The season. Rivers overflow their banks, and some animals retreat to higher ground. Soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases. The incidence of malaria and dengue increases in areas where the rainy season coincides with high temperatures, particularly in tropical areas. Some animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wet season. Often, the previous dry season leads to food shortages in

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3120-499: The state of contamination status of the ecosystem. They are particularly useful since they are sessile so that they are representative of the environment where they are sampled or placed. A typical project is the U.S. Mussel Watch Programme , but today they are used worldwide. The Southern African Scoring System (SASS) method is a biological water quality monitoring system based on the presence of benthic macroinvertebrates (EPT). The SASS aquatic biomonitoring tool has been refined over

3180-419: The state. The National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress is a general report on water quality, providing overall information about the number of miles of streams and rivers and their aggregate condition. The CWA requires states to adopt standards for each of the possible designated uses that they assign to their waters. Should evidence suggest or document that a stream, river or lake has failed to meet

3240-480: The tropics can have two wet seasons, because the monsoon trough, or Intertropical Convergence Zone , can pass over locations in the tropics twice per year. However, since rain forests have rainfall spread evenly through the year, they do not have a wet season. Areas with a savanna climate in Sub-Saharan Africa , such as Ghana , Burkina Faso , Darfur , Eritrea , Ethiopia , and Botswana have

3300-813: The water poses a health risk. In urbanized areas around the world, water purification technology is used in municipal water systems to remove contaminants from the source water (surface water or groundwater ) before it is distributed to homes, businesses, schools and other recipients. Water drawn directly from a stream, lake, or aquifer and that has no treatment will be of uncertain quality in terms of potability. The burden of polluted drinking water disproportionally effects under-represented and vulnerable populations. Communities that lack these clean drinking-water services are at risk of contracting water-borne and pollution-related illnesses like Cholera, diarrhea , dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid, and polio. These communities are often in low-income areas, where human wastewater

3360-479: The water quality criteria for one or more of its designated uses, it is placed on a list of impaired waters. Once a state has placed a water body on this list, it must develop a management plan establishing Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) for the pollutant(s) impairing the use of the water. These TMDLs establish the reductions needed to fully support the designated uses. Drinking water standards, which are applicable to public water systems , are issued by EPA under

3420-655: The water source in question include temperature , pH , dissolved oxygen , conductivity , oxygen reduction potential (ORP) , turbidity , and Secchi disk depth. Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done by several methods, depending on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the contaminant. Sampling methods include for example simple random sampling, stratified sampling , systematic and grid sampling, adaptive cluster sampling , grab samples, semi-continuous monitoring and continuous, passive sampling , remote surveillance, remote sensing , and biomonitoring . The use of passive samplers greatly reduces

3480-433: The water will be used. In the case of natural water bodies , agencies also make some reasonable estimate of pristine conditions. Natural water bodies will vary in response to a region's environmental conditions, whereby water composition is influenced by the surrounding geological features, sediments, and rock types, topography , hydrology , and climate. Environmental scientists and aqueous geochemists work to interpret

3540-414: The wet season is mainly due to daytime heating, which leads to diurnal thunderstorm activity within a pre-existing moist airmass , so the rain mainly falls in late afternoon and early evening in savanna and monsoon regions. Much of the total rainfall each day occurs in the first minutes of the downpour, before the storms mature into their stratiform stage. Most places have only one wet season, but areas of

3600-474: The wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. Crops which can be successfully planted during the wet or rainy season are cassava , maize , groundnut , millet , rice and yam . The temperate counterpart to the tropical wet season is spring or autumn . In areas where the heavy rainfall is associated with a wind shift, the wet season is known as the monsoon season. Many tropical and subtropical climates experience monsoon rainfall patterns. Rainfall in

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