Spodumene is a pyroxene mineral consisting of lithium aluminium inosilicate , Li Al ( Si O 3 ) 2 , and is a commercially important source of lithium. It occurs as colorless to yellowish, purplish, or lilac kunzite (see below), yellowish-green or emerald-green hiddenite , prismatic crystals, often of great size. Single crystals of 14.3 m (47 ft) in size are reported from the Black Hills of South Dakota , United States .
20-437: The naturally-occurring low-temperature form α-spodumene is in the monoclinic system, and the high-temperature β-spodumene crystallizes in the tetragonal system. α-spodumene converts to β-spodumene at temperatures above 900 °C. Crystals are typically heavily striated parallel to the principal axis. Crystal faces are often etched and pitted with triangular markings. Spodumene was first described in 1800 for an occurrence in
40-551: A gemstone with varieties kunzite and hiddenite noted for their strong pleochroism . Source localities include Democratic Republic of Congo , Afghanistan , Australia , Brazil , Madagascar (see mining ), Pakistan , Québec in Canada , and North Carolina and California in the U.S. Since 2018, the Democratic Republic of Congo ( DRC ) has been known to have the largest lithium spodumene hard rock deposit in
60-427: Is lithium hydroxide , commonly used as an input in the battery industry to manufacture lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery cathode material. Hiddenite is a pale, emerald-green gem variety first reported from Alexander County, North Carolina , U.S. It was named in honor of William Earl Hidden (16 February 1853 – 12 June 1918), mining engineer, mineral collector, and mineral dealer. This emerald-green variety of spodumene
80-598: Is a Chinese mining and manufacturing company based in Sichuan . As of 2018, the company controls more than 46% of the production of lithium worldwide. World production of lithium via spodumene was around 80,000 metric tonnes per annum in 2018, primarily from the Greenbushes pegmatite of Western Australia and from some Chinese and Chilean sources. The Talison mine in Greenbushes, Western Australia ,
100-613: Is challenging due to the tight binding of lithium in the crystal structure . Traditional lithium refining in the 2010s involves acid leaching of lithium-containing ores, precipitation of impurities, concentration of the lithium solution, and then conversion to lithium carbonate or lithium hydroxide . These refining methods result in significant quantities of caustic waste effluent and tailings , which are usually either highly acidic or alkali. Another processing method relies on pyrometallurgical processing of SC6—roasting at high temperatures exceeding 800 °C (1,470 °F) to convert
120-400: Is colored by chromium, just as for emeralds . Some green spodumene is colored with substances other than chromium; such stones tend to have a lighter color; they are not true hiddenite. Kunzite is a purple-colored gemstone , a variety of spodumene, with the color coming from minor to trace amounts of manganese . Exposure to sunlight can fade its color. Kunzite was discovered in 1902, and
140-413: Is described by three vectors . In the monoclinic system, the crystal is described by vectors of unequal lengths, as in the orthorhombic system. They form a parallelogram prism . Hence two pairs of vectors are perpendicular (meet at right angles), while the third pair makes an angle other than 90°. Two monoclinic Bravais lattices exist: the primitive monoclinic and the base-centered monoclinic. For
160-587: Is reported to be the 2nd largest and to have the highest grade of ore at 2.4% Li 2 O (2012 figures). Tianqi has owned a 51% ownership stake in Talison Lithium , which operates the Greenbushes mine in Australia , since 2009. Tianqi announced in 2018 that it would invest US$ 600 million to construct a lithium processing plant in Kwinana , Western Australia . In 2018, Tianqi acquired a 24% stake in
180-623: The type locality in Utö , Södermanland , Sweden . It was discovered by Brazilian naturalist Jose Bonifacio de Andrada e Silva . The name is derived from the Greek spodumenos (σποδούμενος), meaning "burnt to ashes", owing to the opaque ash-grey appearance of material refined for use in industry. Spodumene occurs in lithium-rich granite pegmatites and aplites . Associated minerals include: quartz , albite , petalite , eucryptite , lepidolite and beryl . Transparent material has long been used as
200-727: The Chilean mining company Sociedad Química y Minera (SQM) for approximately $ 4.1 billion. Tianqi was to purchase 62.5 million SQM A shares for $ 65 each from Canadian fertilizer company Nutrien . Tianqi is currently in a legal dispute with MSP Engineering over the payment for building the lithium hydroxide plant in Kwinana Western Australia. MSP claim that Tianqi have failed to meet scheduled payments totalling over $ 39 million. A WA Supreme Court order handed down an order giving Tianqi seven days to pay MSP almost $ 39 million, something that Tianqi has refused to do, seeking
220-472: The base-centered monoclinic lattice, the primitive cell has the shape of an oblique rhombic prism; it can be constructed because the two-dimensional centered rectangular base layer can also be described with primitive rhombic axes. The length a {\displaystyle a} of the primitive cell below equals 1 2 a 2 + b 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2}}{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}} of
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#1732793794442240-537: The conventional cell above. The table below organizes the space groups of the monoclinic crystal system by crystal class. It lists the International Tables for Crystallography space group numbers, followed by the crystal class name, its point group in Schoenflies notation , Hermann–Mauguin (international) notation , orbifold notation, and Coxeter notation, type descriptors, mineral examples, and
260-439: The deposit. Spodumene is an important source of lithium , for use in ceramics , mobile phones and batteries (including for automotive applications), medicine , Pyroceram and as a fluxing agent. As of 2019, around half of lithium is extracted from mineral ores, which mainly consist of spodumene. Lithium is recovered from spodumene by dissolution in acid , or extraction with other reagents, after roasting to convert it to
280-406: The leading lithium producing country in the world. An important economic concentrate of spodumene, known as spodumene concentrate 6 or SC6 , is a high-purity lithium ore with approximately 6 percent lithium content being produced as a raw material for the subsequent production of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles. Extraction of lithium from spodumene, often spodumene concentrate 6 (SC6),
300-548: The more reactive β-spodumene. The advantage of spodumene as a lithium source compared to brine sources is the higher lithium concentration, but at a higher extraction cost. In 2016, the price was forecast to be $ 500–600/ton for years to come. However, price spiked above $ 800 in January 2018, and production increased more than consumption, reducing the price to $ 400 in September 2020. World production of lithium via spodumene
320-538: The notation for the space groups . Sphenoidal is also called monoclinic hemimorphic, domatic is also called monoclinic hemihedral, and prismatic is also called monoclinic normal. The three monoclinic hemimorphic space groups are as follows: The four monoclinic hemihedral space groups include The only monoclinic Bravais lattice in two dimensions is the oblique lattice. Tianqi Lithium Tianqi Lithium Corp ( Chinese : 天齐锂业 ; pinyin : Tiānqí Lǐ Yè ; previously Sichuan Tianqi Lithium Industries, Inc. )
340-569: The spodumene from the tightly-bound alpha structure to a more open beta structure from which the lithium is more easily extracted—then cooling and reacting with various reagents in a sequence of hydrometallurgical processing steps. Some offer the use of non-caustic reagents and result in reduced waste streams, potentially allowing the use of a closed-loop refining process. Suitable extraction reagents include alkali metal sulfates, such as sodium sulfate ; sodium carbonate ; chlorine ; or hydrofluoric acid . A common form of more highly refined lithium
360-544: The world, with mining operations occurring in the central DRC territory of Manono , Tanganyika Province . As of 2021, the Australian company AVZ Minerals is developing the Manono Lithium and Tin project and has a resource size of 400 million tonnes of high grade low impurities at 1.65% lithium oxide ( Li 2 O ) spodumene hard-rock based on studies and drilling of Roche Dure, one of several pegmatites in
380-487: Was around 80,000 metric tonnes per annum in 2018, primarily from the Greenbushes pegmatite of Western Australia and from some Chinese and Chilean sources. The Talison Minerals mine in Greenbushes, Western Australia (involving Tianqi Lithium , Albemarle Corporation and Global Advanced Metals ), is reported to be the world's second largest and to have the highest grade of ore at 2.4% Li 2 O (2012 figures). In 2020, Australia expanded spodumene mining to become
400-497: Was named after George Frederick Kunz , Tiffany & Co 's chief jeweler at the time, and a noted mineralogist. It has been found in Brazil , the U.S., Canada , CIS , Mexico , Sweden , Western Australia , Afghanistan and Pakistan . Triphane is the name used for yellowish varieties of spodumene. Monoclinic In crystallography , the monoclinic crystal system is one of the seven crystal systems . A crystal system
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