65-509: HKFA may refer to: Hong Kong Film Award , an annual film awards ceremony in Hong Kong Hong Kong Film Archive , located at 50 Lei King Road, Sai Wan Ho, Hong Kong Hong Kong Football Association , the association football federation of Hong Kong, China Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with
130-550: A Lu Xun story) and Shui Hua 's The Lin Family Shop (1959, adapted from a Mao Dun story). The most prominent filmmaker of this era was Xie Jin , whose three films in particular, Woman Basketball Player No. 5 (1957), The Red Detachment of Women (1961), and Two Stage Sisters (1964), exemplify China's increased expertise in filmmaking. Films made during this period are polished, exhibiting high production value and elaborate sets. While Beijing and Shanghai remained
195-623: A board of directors, which consists of representatives from thirteen professional film bodies in Hong Kong. Voting on eligible films for the HKFA is conducted January through March every year and is open to all registered voters, which include local film workers as well as critics, and a selected group of adjudicators. The Hong Kong Film Awards are open to all Hong Kong films which are longer than an hour and commercially released in Hong Kong within
260-550: A century of Chinese cinema , the Hong Kong Film Awards unveiled a list of Best 100 Chinese Motion Pictures (which in fact includes 103 films) during the 24th Hong Kong Film Awards ceremony on 27 March 2005. The list, selected by a panel of 101 filmmakers, critics and scholars, includes 24 films from Mainland China (11 from pre-1949 and 13 from post-1949), 61 from Hong Kong , 16 from Taiwan , and 2 co-productions. Cinema of China The cinema of China
325-641: A family of silk farmers in Spring Silkworms and a prostitute in The Goddess . In part due to the success of these kinds of films, this post-1930 era is now often referred to as the first "golden period" of Chinese cinema. The Leftist cinematic movement often revolved around the Western-influenced Shanghai, where filmmakers portrayed the struggling lower class of an overpopulated city. Three production companies dominated
390-515: A film until mobile projectionists brought them. Mobile projection teams during the Mao era typically included three to four workers who physically transported film infrastructure through a large geographic area mostly not covered by any electrical grid. Yuan Muzhi was important in developing the Communist government's theories and practices of rural film exhibition. Yuan and Chen Bo'er transformed
455-476: A first round of election, open to all registered voters and a selected group of 100 professional adjudicators, is held to determine the five nominees for each award category. In the rare case where there is a tie between two nominees within the top five slots, six nominees will be allowed. Nominations are usually announced in February, after which a second round of election is held to determine the winner. Voting in
520-759: A genre of redemptive melodramas, which sought to encourage audiences to "speak bitterness". After the United Kingdom and the PRC established diplomatic relations, cultural exchanges between the two countries gradually resumed, including British moves being made available in China. The thawing of censorship in 1956–57 (known as the Hundred Flowers Campaign ) and in the early 1960s led to more indigenous Chinese films being made, which were less reliant on their Soviet counterparts. During this campaign
585-741: A minority watched in theaters. Work as a mobile projectionist was physically and technically demanding. As a result, women projectionists and all-women mobile projection teams were promoted in Chinese media as examples of advancing gender equality under socialism. In the 1950s and the 1960s, the Communist Party built cinemas (among other cultural buildings) in industrial districts on urban peripheries. These structures were influenced by Soviet architecture and were intended to be vivacious but not "palatial." Rural mobile projectionist teams and urban movie theaters were generally managed through
650-768: A motion picture in China took place in Shanghai on 11 August 1896 as an "act" on a variety bill. The first Chinese film, a recording of the Peking opera , Dingjun Mountain , was made in November 1905 in Beijing . For the next decade the production companies were mainly foreign-owned, and the domestic film industry was centered on Shanghai, a thriving entrepot and the largest city in the Far East . Chinese-made short melodrama and comedy films began emerging in 1913. In 1913,
715-517: A typical example of their success in the Chinese communities of Southeast Asia. In 1931, the first Chinese sound film Sing-Song Girl Red Peony was made, the product of a cooperation between the Mingxing Film Company's image production and Pathé Frères 's sound technology. However, the sound was disc-recorded , which was then played in the theater in-sync with the action on the screen. The first sound-on-film talkie made in China
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#1732776131028780-711: A variety of folk arts , such as papercuts , shadow plays , puppetry , and traditional paintings , also were very popular for entertaining and educating children. The most famous of these, the classic Havoc in Heaven (two parts, 1961, 4), was made by Wan Laiming of the Wan Brothers and won the Outstanding Film award at the London International Film Festival . Films such as The White-Haired Girl and Serf were part of
845-475: Is Long Live the Missus (1947), like Love Everlasting with an original screenplay by writer Eileen Chang . Wenhua's romantic drama, Spring in a Small Town (1948), directed by Fei Mu shortly prior to the revolution, is often regarded by Chinese film critics as one of the most important films in the history of Chinese cinema, in 2005, Hong Kong film awards it as the best 100 years of film. Ironically, it
910-779: Is an annual film awards ceremony in Hong Kong . The ceremonies typically take place in April, and have mostly been held at the Grand Theatre of the Hong Kong Cultural Centre since 1991. The awards recognise achievement in various aspects of filmmaking , such as directing , screenwriting , acting and cinematography . The awards are regarded as the Hong Kong equivalent of the Academy Awards . The HKFA, incorporated into Hong Kong Film Awards Association Ltd. since December 1993, are currently managed by
975-598: Is the filmmaking and film industry of the Chinese mainland under the People's Republic of China , one of three distinct historical threads of Chinese-language cinema together with the cinema of Hong Kong and the cinema of Taiwan . China is the home of the largest movie and drama production complex and film studios in the world, the Oriental Movie Metropolis and Hengdian World Studios . In 2012
1040-749: The Battle of Shanghai , ended this golden run in Chinese cinema. All production companies except Xinhua Film Company ("New China") closed shop. A large number filmmakers left to join the War of Resistance, with many going to the Nationalist-controlled hinterlands to join the Nationalist film studios Central Motion Picture Studio or China Motion Picture Studio. A smaller number went to Yan'an or Hong Kong. The Shanghai film industry, though severely curtailed, did not stop however, thus leading to
1105-744: The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere -promoting Eternity (1943) were produced. During the 1930 and 1940s, both the Chinese Nationalist government and the Japanese occupation authorities sent mobile projectionist units into areas under their control to show propaganda films. In the Yan'an Soviet during September 1938, the Eighth Route Army established its first film group. In 1943,
1170-613: The Manchukuo Film Association (Man-ei) . Man-ei had state-of-the-art film production equipment and supplies. The former colonial studio was relocated to Hegang , where it was established as Northeastern Film Studio , the communist party's first full-capacity film studio. Yuan Muzhi was its director and Chen Bo'er was its party secretary. Northeastern Film Studio began production in early 1947, focusing on news and documentary films, as well as some fiction, educational film for children, and animation. During
1235-579: The Ministry of Culture held a meeting to introduce a Great Leap Forward in cinema. During the Great Leap Forward, the film industry rapidly expanded, with documentary films being the genre that experienced the greatest growth. Trends in documentary film included "artistic documentaries," in which actors and non-actors reenacted events. Film venues also expanded rapidly, including both urban cinemas and mobile projection units. As part of
1300-573: The Socialist Education Movement , mobile film projectionist units showed films and slideshows that emphasized class struggle and encouraged audience members to discuss bitter experiences onstage. New films termed "emphasis films" were released to coincide with the campaign, and the film version of The White-Haired Girl was re-released. In 1965, China launched the Resist America, Aid Vietnam campaign in response to
1365-470: The Soviet socialist realism style of filmmaking. The Beijing Film Academy was established in 1950 and officially opened in 1956. One important film of this era is This Life of Mine (1950), directed by Shi Hu, which follows an old beggar reflecting on his past life as a policeman working for the various regimes since 1911. The first widescreen Chinese film was produced in 1960. Animated films using
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#17327761310281430-485: The U.S. bombing of North Vietnam . To promote campaign themes denouncing U.S. imperialism and promoted Vietnamese resistance, the communist party used film exhibitions and other cultural media. During the Cultural Revolution, the film industry was severely restricted. Almost all previous films were banned, and only a few new ones were produced, the revolutionary model operas . The most notable of these
1495-456: The " Solitary Island " period (also known as the "Sole Island" or "Orphan Island"), with Shanghai's foreign concessions serving as an "island" of production in the "sea" of Japanese-occupied territory. It was during this period that artists and directors who remained in the city had to walk a fine line between staying true to their leftist and nationalist beliefs and Japanese pressures. Director Bu Wancang 's Hua Mu Lan , also known as Mulan Joins
1560-806: The 17 years between the founding of the People's Republic of China and the Cultural Revolution , 603 feature films and 8,342 reels of documentaries and newsreels were produced, sponsored mostly as Communist propaganda by the government. For example, in Guerrilla on the Railroad (铁道游击队), dated 1956, the Chinese Communist Party was depicted as the primary resistance force against the Second Sino-Japanese War. Chinese filmmakers were sent to Moscow to study
1625-486: The 1920s and 1930s, filmmaking in China was largely done by film studios and there was comparatively little small scale filmmaking. Upscale movie theaters in China had and contracts which required them to exclusively show Hollywood films, and thus as of the later 1920s, Hollywood films accounted for 90% of screen time in Chinese theaters. After trial and error, China was able to draw inspiration from its own traditional values and began producing martial arts films, with
1690-555: The 1920s. During the 1920s film technicians from the United States trained Chinese technicians in Shanghai, and American influence continued to be felt there for the next two decades. Since film was still in its earliest stages of development, most Chinese silent films at this time were only comic skits or operatic shorts, and training was minimal at a technical aspect due to this being a period of experimental film. Throughout
1755-430: The 1950s, most rural people had not seen a film. The number of movie-viewers hence increased sharply, partly bolstered by the fact that film tickets were given out to work units and attendance was compulsory, with admissions rising from 47 million in 1949 to 4.15 billion in 1959. By 1965 there were around 20,393 mobile film units. During the course of the Mao era, the majority of films were shown by such units, with only
1820-529: The Army (1939), with its story of a young Chinese peasant fighting against a foreign invasion, was a particularly good example of Shanghai's continued film-production in the midst of war. This period ended when Japan declared war on the Western allies on 7 December 1941; the solitary island was finally engulfed by the sea of the Japanese occupation. With the Shanghai industry firmly in Japanese control, films like
1885-540: The Chinese film industry and resulted in the loss of many early films. The first truly important Chinese films were produced beginning in the 1930s with the advent of the "progressive" or "left-wing" movement, like Cheng Bugao 's Spring Silkworms (1933), Wu Yonggang 's The Goddess (1934), and Sun Yu 's The Great Road , also known as The Big Road (1934). These films were noted for their emphasis on class struggle and external threats (i.e. Japanese aggression), as well as on their focus on common people, such as
1950-540: The Cultural Revolution period. Feature film production came almost to a standstill in the early years from 1967 to 1972. Movie production revived after 1972 under the strict jurisdiction of the Gang of Four until 1976, when they were overthrown. The few films that were produced during this period, such as 1975's Breaking with Old Ideas , were highly regulated in terms of plot and characterization. In 1972, Chinese officials invited Michelangelo Antonioni to China to film
2015-507: The Lianhua name as the "Lianhua Film Society with Shi Dongshan, Meng Junmou, and Zheng Junli." This in turn became Kunlun Studios , which would go on to become one of the most important studios of the era (Kunlun Studios merged with seven other studios to form Shanghai film studio in 1949), putting out the classics The Spring River Flows East (1947), Myriad of Lights (1948), Crows and Sparrows (1949), and Wanderings of Three-Hairs
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2080-482: The National People's Congress Standing Committee. Motion pictures were introduced to China in 1896. They were introduced through foreign film exhibitors in treaty ports like Shanghai and Hong Kong. China was one of the earliest countries to be exposed to the medium of film, due to Louis Lumière sending his cameraman to Shanghai a year after inventing cinematography . The first recorded screening of
2145-480: The Orphan , also known as San Mao, The Little Vagabond (1949). Many of these films showed the disillusionment with the oppressive rule of Chiang Kai-shek 's Nationalist Party and the struggling oppression of nation by war. The Spring River Flows East , a three-hour-long two-parter directed by Cai Chusheng and Zheng Junli , was a particularly strong success. Its depiction of the struggles of ordinary Chinese during
2210-609: The PRC's cultural bureaucracy. Trade Unions and PLA propaganda departments also operated film exhibition networks. In 1950s China, a common view of film was that it served as "socialist distance horizon education". For example, films promoted rural collectivization . Cinema also sought to develop the proletarian class consciousness of rural workers, encouraging the industrialization and militarization of their labor. Film projection teams operating in rural China were asked to incorporate lantern slides into their work to introduce national policies and political campaigns. In
2275-767: The Second Sino-Japanese war, replete with biting social and political commentary, struck a chord with audiences of the time. Meanwhile, companies like the Wenhua Film Company ("Culture Films"), moved away from the leftist tradition and explored the evolution and development of other dramatic genres. Wenhua treated postwar problems in universalistic and humanistic ways, avoiding the family narrative and melodramatic formulae. Excellent examples of Wenhua's fare are its first two postwar features, Love Everlasting ( Bu liaoqing , 1947) and Fake Bride, Phony Bridegroom (1947). Another memorable Wenhua film
2340-585: The Small Town to find a new and admiring audience and to influence an entire new generation of filmmakers. Indeed, an acclaimed remake was made in 2002 by Tian Zhuangzhuang . A Chinese Peking opera film, A Wedding in the Dream (1948), by the same director (Fei Mu), was the first Chinese color film . At the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, there were fewer than 600 movie theaters in
2405-499: The West. Chinese cinema grew significantly in the late 1970s. In 1979, annual box office admissions reached a peak of 29.3 billion tickets sold, equivalent to an average of 30 films per person. Chinese cinema continued to prosper into the early 1980s. In 1980, annual box office admissions stood at 23.4 billion tickets sold, equivalent to an average of 29 films per person. In terms of box office admissions , this period represented
2470-452: The achievements of the Cultural Revolution. Antonioni made the documentary Chung Kuo, Cina . When it was released in 1974, Communist Party leadership in China interpreted the film as reactionary and anti-Chinese. Viewing art through the principles of the Yan'an Talks , particularly the concept that there is no such thing as art-for-art's-sake, party leadership construed Antonioni's aesthetic choices as politically motivated and banned
2535-646: The communists released their first campaign film, Nanniwan , which sought to develop relationships between the communist army and local people in the Yan'an area by showcasing the army's production campaign to alleviate material shortages. Following Japan's unconditional surrender in August 1945, the Soviet Red Army helped the Chinese communists to take over the Japanese colonial film establishment in Manchuria,
2600-441: The country became the second-largest market in the world by box office receipts. In 2016, the gross box office in China was CN¥45.71 billion ( US$ 6.58 billion ). China has also become a major hub of business for Hollywood studios. In November 2016, China passed a film law banning content deemed harmful to the "dignity, honor and interests" of the People's Republic and encouraging the promotion of "socialist core values", approved by
2665-422: The country traveled to Nanjing for a training program. These projectionists replicated the training program in their own home provinces to create more projectionists. Nanjing was later termed a "Cradle of People's Cinema." The PRC sought to recruit women and ethnic minority projectionists in an effort to more effectively reach marginalized communities. Until the profusion of mobile projectionist teams in
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2730-487: The country. The government saw motion pictures as an important artform and tool for mass propaganda . The Soviet-led collaborations Victory of the Chinese People (1950) and Liberated China (1951) were among the biggest film events in the PRC's early years. Victory of the Chinese People depicted re-enactments of four of the communist party's major military victories and was filmed using real ammunition with
2795-770: The feature was accused of spreading feudal ideas. After the article was revealed to be penned by Mao Zedong , the film was banned, the Film Steering Committee was formed to "re-educate" the film industry, and the private studios were all incorporated into the state-run Shanghai Film Studio . After the establishment of the PRC, China's cultural bureaucracy described American films as screen-opium and began criticizing American film alongside anti-drug campaigns. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) sought to tighten control over mass media, producing instead movies centering on peasants, soldiers, and workers, such as Bridge (1949) and The White-Haired Girl (1950). One of
2860-700: The film. Jiang Qing criticized Premier Zhou Enlai 's role in Antonioni's invitation to China as not only a failure but also treasonous. Since its 2004 release in China, the film has been well-regarded by Chinese audiences, especially for its beautiful depictions of a more simple time. Because China rejection most foreign film importation, comparatively minor cinema like Albanian cinema and North Korean cinema developed mass audiences in China. Through Albanian films screened during this period, many Chinese audience members were introduced to avant-garde and modernist storytelling techniques and aesthetics. In
2925-477: The first being Burning of Red Lotus Temple (1928). Burning of Red Lotus Temple was so successful at the box office, the Star Motion Pictures (Mingxing) production later filmed 18 sequels, marking the beginning of China's esteemed martial arts films. Many imitators followed, including U. Lien (Youlian) Studio's Red Heroine (1929), which is still extant. It was during this period that some of
2990-420: The first independent Chinese screenplay, The Difficult Couple , was filmed in Shanghai by Zheng Zhengqiu and Zhang Shichuan . Zhang Shichuan then set up the first Chinese-owned film production company in 1916. The first full-length feature film was Yan Ruisheng (閻瑞生) released in 1921, which was a docudrama about the killing of a Shanghai courtesan . Chinese film production developed significantly in
3055-621: The hundreds of millions. China's highest-grossing film in box office admissions was Legend of the White Snake (1980) with an estimated 700 million admissions, followed by In-Laws ( Full House of Joy ) [ zh ] (1981) and The Undaunted Wudang (1983) with more than 600 million ticket sales each. The highest-grossing foreign film was the Japanese film Kimi yo Fundo no Kawa o Watare (1976), which released in 1978 and sold more than 330 million tickets, followed by
3120-580: The later phase of the Chinese Civil War , filmmakers trained in Yan'an and Northeastern Film Studio documented all the major battles leading to the communists' defeat of the Nationalists. The film industry continued to develop after 1945. Production in Shanghai once again resumed as a new crop of studios took the place that Lianhua and Mingxing studios had occupied in the previous decade. In 1945, Cai Chusheng returned to Shanghai to revive
3185-497: The main centers of production, between 1957 and 1960 the government built regional studios in Guangzhou , Xi'an , and Chengdu to encourage representation of ethnic minorities in films. Chinese cinema began to directly address the issue of such ethnic minorities during the late 1950s and early 1960s in films like Five Golden Flowers (1959), Third Sister Liu (1960), Serfs (1963), and Ashima (1964). On 9 March 1958,
3250-446: The market in the early to mid-1930s: the newly formed Lianhua ("United China"), the older and larger Mingxing and Tianyi. Both Mingxing and Lianhua leaned left (Lianhua's management perhaps more so), while Tianyi continued to make less socially conscious fare. The period also produced the first big Chinese movie stars, such as Hu Die, Ruan Lingyu, Li Lili , Chen Yanyan , Zhou Xuan , Zhao Dan and Jin Yan . Other major films of
3315-619: The more important production companies first came into being, notably Mingxing and the Shaw brothers' Tianyi ("Unique"). Mingxing, founded by Zheng Zhengqiu and Zhang Shichuan in 1922, initially focused on comic shorts, including the oldest surviving complete Chinese film, Laborer's Love (1922). This soon shifted, however, to feature-length films and family dramas including Orphan Rescues Grandfather (1923). Meanwhile, Tianyi shifted their model towards folklore dramas and also pushed into foreign markets; their film White Snake (1926) proved
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#17327761310283380-451: The needs of workers and of socialism. In addition to films deemed laudatory, from the middle of 1966 to 1968, the expanding film distribution network screened films characterized as "poisonous weeds" to hundreds of millions of audience members for the purpose of criticizing the films. These criticism screenings were sometimes accompanied by struggle sessions . Sent-down youth were a major subset of China's rural projectionists during
3445-621: The participation of the People's Liberation Army . The private studios in Shanghai, including Kunming, Wenhua, Guotai, and Datong, were at first encouraged to make new films. They made approximately 47 films during the next two years but soon ran into trouble, owing to the furor over the Kunlun-produced drama The Life of Wu Xun (1950), directed by Sun Yu and starring veteran Zhao Dan. In an anonymous article in People's Daily in May 1951,
3510-452: The peak ticket sales in the history of the Chinese box office. High ticket sales were driven by low ticket prices, with a cinema ticket typically costing between ¥ 0.1 ( $ 0.06 ) and ¥0.3 ( $ 0.19 ) at the time. By the early 1980s, there were 162,000 projection units in China, primarily composed of mobile movie teams which showed films outdoors in both rural and urban areas. A number of films during this period drew box office admissions in
3575-650: The period include Love and Duty (1931), Little Toys (1933), New Women (1934), Song of the Fishermen (1934), Plunder of Peach and Plum (1934), Crossroads (1937), and Street Angel (1937). Throughout the 1930s, the Nationalists and the Communists struggled for power and control over the major studios; their influence can be seen in the films the studios produced during this period. The Japanese invasion of China in 1937, in particular
3640-573: The post-Second Sino-Japanese War remnants of the Manchurian Motion Picture Association into the Northeast Film Studio and when Yuan became Film Bureau chief in 1949, he applied its model to help institute a film exhibition network around the country. The Northeast Film Studio also trained the first generation of communist Chinese documentary filmmakers. In 1950, 1,800 projectionists from around
3705-453: The previous calendar year. A film qualifies as a Hong Kong film if it satisfies two of the three criteria, namely: the film director is a Hong Kong resident, at least one film company is registered in Hong Kong, and at least six persons of the production crew are Hong Kong residents. Since 2002, the HKFA also feature a Best Asian Film category, which accepts non-Hong Kong films which are commercially released in Hong Kong. In January each year,
3770-594: The production bases in the middle of all the transition was the Changchun Film Studio . American films were banned as part of the Korean War effort. The Communist government solved the problem of a lack of film theaters by building mobile projection units which could tour the remote regions of China, ensuring that even the poorest could have access to films. The vast majority of China's people lived in rural areas, and most people in China had not seen
3835-545: The second round is open to a group of 50 professional adjudicators, Executive Committee members of the HKFA, as well as members of the thirteen professional film bodies. Each voting group holds a percentage of the ultimate score for each nominee, and each film body holds a higher share in the categories associated with it. The Board of Directors consists of representatives from thirteen professional film bodies in Hong Kong , listed below. The Hong Kong Film Awards currently feature 19 regular categories, listed below. To celebrate
3900-650: The sharpest criticisms came from the satirical comedies of Lü Ban . Before the New Director Arrives exposes the hierarchical relationships occurring between the cadres, while his next film, The Unfinished Comedy (1957), was labeled as a "poisonous weed" during the Anti-Rightist Movement , and Lü was banned from directing for life. Other noteworthy films produced during this period were adaptations of literary classics, such as Sang Hu 's The New Year's Sacrifice (1956, adapted from
3965-528: The title HKFA . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HKFA&oldid=1055499900 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Hong Kong Film Award The Hong Kong Film Awards ( HKFA ; Chinese : 香港電影金像獎 ), founded in 1982,
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#17327761310284030-420: The years immediately following the Cultural Revolution, the film industry again flourished as a medium of popular entertainment. Production rose steadily, from 19 features in 1977 to 125 in 1986. Domestically produced films played to large audiences, and tickets for foreign film festivals sold quickly. The industry tried to revive crowds by making more innovative and "exploratory" films like their counterparts in
4095-556: Was a ballet version of the revolutionary opera The Red Detachment of Women , directed by Pan Wenzhan and Fu Jie in 1970. The release of filmed versions of the revolutionary model operas resulted in a re-organization and expansion of China's film exhibition network. From 1965 to 1976, the number of film projection units in China quadrupled, total film audiences nearly tripled, and the national film attendance rate doubled. The Cultural Revolution Group drastically reduced ticket prices which, in its view, would allow film to better serve
4160-412: Was either Spring on Stage (歌場春色) by Tianyi, or Clear Sky After Storm by Great China Studio and Jinan Studio. Musical films, such as Song at Midnight (1937) and Street Angels (1937), starring Zhou Xuan, became one of the most popular film genres in China. News films increased in importance following the Japanese air raid on Shanghai in 1932. The bombing also destroyed significant amounts of
4225-539: Was precisely its artistic quality and apparent lack of "political grounding" that led to its labeling by the Communists as rightist or reactionary, and the film was quickly forgotten by those on the mainland following the Communist victory in China in 1949. However, with the China Film Archive's re-opening after the Cultural Revolution, a new print was struck from the original negative, allowing Spring of
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