Misplaced Pages

#759240

67-544: The Hurd's design consists of a set of protocols and server processes (or daemons , in Unix terminology) that run on the GNU Mach microkernel. The Hurd aims to surpass the Unix kernel in functionality, security, and stability, while remaining largely compatible with it. The GNU Project chose the multiserver microkernel for the operating system, due to perceived advantages over the traditional Unix monolithic kernel architecture,

134-1107: A computer monitor or input device, audio hardware and USB interfaces. Many servers do not have a graphical user interface (GUI). They are configured and managed remotely. Remote management can be conducted via various methods including Microsoft Management Console (MMC), PowerShell , SSH and browser-based out-of-band management systems such as Dell's iDRAC or HP's iLo . Large traditional single servers would need to be run for long periods without interruption. Availability would have to be very high, making hardware reliability and durability extremely important. Mission-critical enterprise servers would be very fault tolerant and use specialized hardware with low failure rates in order to maximize uptime . Uninterruptible power supplies might be incorporated to guard against power failure. Servers typically include hardware redundancy such as dual power supplies , RAID disk systems, and ECC memory , along with extensive pre-boot memory testing and verification. Critical components might be hot swappable , allowing technicians to replace them on

201-405: A computer network . This architecture is called the client–server model . Servers can provide various functionalities, often called "services", such as sharing data or resources among multiple clients or performing computations for a client. A single server can serve multiple clients, and a single client can use multiple servers. A client process may run on the same device or may connect over

268-504: A Google Summer of Code T-shirt, while $ 500 per project was sent to the mentoring organization. Approximately 80% of the projects were successfully completed in 2005, although completion rates varied by organization: Ubuntu , for example, reported a completion rate of only 64%, and KDE reported a 67% completion rate. Many projects were continued past summer, even though the SOC period was over, and some changed direction as they developed. For

335-500: A bug in one module would not crash the entire system. Hurd provides a concept of translators , a framework of modules used to extend a file system functionality. From early on, the Hurd was developed to use GNU Mach as the microkernel. This was a technical decision made by Richard Stallman , who thought it would speed up the work by saving a large part of it. He has admitted that he was wrong about that. Other Unix-like systems working on

402-433: A correct login password. Regarding the file system , a suitable program can be designated as a translator for a single file or a whole directory hierarchy. Every access to the translated file, or files below a hierarchy in the second case, is in fact handled by the program. For example, a file translator may simply redirect read and write operations to another file, like a Unix symbolic link . The effect of Unix mounting

469-448: A few surviving projects of their own from the event (KDE only counted 1 continuing project from out of the 24 projects which it sponsored). In 2006, around 6,000 applications were submitted, less than the previous year because all applicants were required to have Google Accounts which reduced the number of spam applications received. Google and most mentors found that the proposals were of much higher quality than 2005's applications. Also,

536-585: A list of initial project ideas and invites contributors to their development communities. Contributors who meet the eligibility criteria then submit up to 3 proposals that detail the software-coding projects that interest them. These applications are then evaluated by the corresponding mentoring organization, with mentors and organizational administrators reviewing the applications and deciding how many "slots" to request from Google, and which proposals to accept. Google allocates slots to each organization, taking into account organizational capacity, mentoring history, and

603-638: A lot of deep problems", but added that "finishing it is not crucial" for the GNU system because a free kernel already existed ( Linux ), and completing Hurd would not address the main remaining problem for a free operating system: device support. The Debian project, among others, have worked on the Hurd project to produce binary distributions of Hurd-based GNU operating systems for IBM PC compatible systems. After years of stagnation, development picked up again in 2015 and 2016, with four releases during these two years, but no more since then. On August 20, 2015, amid

670-414: A network to a server on a different device. Typical servers are database servers , file servers , mail servers , print servers , web servers , game servers , and application servers . Client–server systems are usually most frequently implemented by (and often identified with) the request–response model: a client sends a request to the server, which performs some action and sends a response back to

737-533: A pair of mutually recursive acronyms. As both hurd and hird are homophones of the English word herd , the full name GNU Hurd is also a play on the words herd of gnus , reflecting how the kernel works. The logo is called the Hurd boxes and it also reflects on architecture. The logo is a graph where nodes represent the Hurd kernel's servers and directed edges are IPC messages. Richard Stallman founded

SECTION 10

#1732783022760

804-444: A part of the interface. For instance, the various filesystem servers each implement the filesystem calls. The storage server will work as a wrapping layer, similar to the block layer of Linux. The equivalent of VFS of Linux is achieved by libdiskfs and libpager libraries. Hurd-based GNU distributions include: Server (computing) A server is a computer that provides information to other computers called " clients " on

871-401: A resource) is a server, and the calling process or processes is a client. Thus any general-purpose computer connected to a network can host servers. For example, if files on a device are shared by some process, that process is a file server . Similarly, web server software can run on any capable computer, and so a laptop or a personal computer can host a web server. While request–response

938-755: A server is used. Almost the entire structure of the Internet is based upon a client–server model. High-level root nameservers , DNS , and routers direct the traffic on the internet. There are millions of servers connected to the Internet, running continuously throughout the world and virtually every action taken by an ordinary Internet user requires one or more interactions with one or more servers. There are exceptions that do not use dedicated servers; for example, peer-to-peer file sharing and some implementations of telephony (e.g. pre-Microsoft Skype ). Hardware requirement for servers vary widely, depending on

1005-520: A user to unify multiple directories into one; thus listing the unified directory reveals the contents of all the directories. The Hurd requires a multiboot -compliant boot loader , such as GRUB . According to the Debian documentation, there are 24 servers (18 core servers and 6 file system servers) named as follows: The servers collectively implement the POSIX API , with each server implementing

1072-407: A view that had been advocated by some developers in the 1980s. In December 1991 the primary architect of the Hurd described the name as a mutually recursive acronym : It's time [to] explain the meaning of "Hurd". "Hurd" stands for "Hird of Unix-Replacing Daemons". And, then, "Hird" stands for "Hurd of Interfaces Representing Depth". We have here, to my knowledge, the first software to be named by

1139-618: Is a collaborative effort, Open Compute Project around this concept. A class of small specialist servers called network appliances are generally at the low end of the scale, often being smaller than common desktop computers. A mobile server has a portable form factor, e.g. a laptop . In contrast to large data centers or rack servers, the mobile server is designed for on-the-road or ad hoc deployment into emergency, disaster or temporary environments where traditional servers are not feasible due to their power requirements, size, and deployment time. The main beneficiaries of so-called "server on

1206-421: Is achieved by setting up a filesystem translator (using the "settrans" command). Translators can also be used to provide services to the user. For example, the ftpfs translator allows a user to encapsulate remote FTP sites within a directory. Then, standard tools such as ls , cp , and rm can be used to manipulate files on the remote system. Even more powerful translators are ones such as UnionFS , which allows

1273-427: Is also less of a concern, but power consumption and heat output can be a serious issue. Server rooms are equipped with air conditioning devices. A server farm or server cluster is a collection of computer servers maintained by an organization to supply server functionality far beyond the capability of a single device. Modern data centers are now often built of very large clusters of much simpler servers, and there

1340-451: Is open to anyone aged 18 or over, no longer just students and recent graduates. It was first held from May to August 2005. Participants get paid to write software, with the amount of their stipend depending on the purchasing power parity of the country where they are located. Project ideas are listed by host organizations involved in open-source software development, though students can also propose their own project ideas. The idea for

1407-402: Is part of the client–server model ; in this model, a server serves data for clients . The nature of communication between a client and server is request and response . This is in contrast with peer-to-peer model in which the relationship is on-demand reciprocation. In principle, any computerized process that can be used or called by another process (particularly remotely, particularly to share

SECTION 20

#1732783022760

1474-415: Is the most common client-server design, there are others, such as the publish–subscribe pattern . In the publish-subscribe pattern, clients register with a pub-sub server, subscribing to specified types of messages; this initial registration may be done by request-response. Thereafter, the pub-sub server forwards matching messages to the clients without any further requests: the server pushes messages to

1541-724: The GNU Project in September 1983 with an aim to create a free GNU operating system. Initially the components required for kernel development were written: editors , shell , compiler , debugger etc. By 1989, the GPL came into being and the only major component missing was the kernel. Development on the Hurd began in 1990 after an abandoned kernel attempt in 1986, based on the research TRIX operating system developed by Professor Steve Ward and his group at MIT's Laboratory for Computer Science (LCS). According to Thomas Bushnell ,

1608-621: The Google Summer of Code , it was announced that GNU Guix had been ported to GNU Hurd. Unlike most Unix-like kernels, the Hurd uses a server–client architecture , built on a microkernel that is responsible for providing the most basic kernel services – coordinating access to the hardware : the CPU (through process management and scheduling ), RAM (via memory management ), and other various input/output devices (via I/O scheduling ) for sound, graphics, mass storage, etc. In theory,

1675-462: The Mach microkernel include OSF/1 , Lites , and MkLinux . macOS and NeXTSTEP use hybrid kernels based on Mach. From 2004 onward, various efforts were launched to port the Hurd to more modern microkernels. The L4 microkernel was the original choice in 2004, but progress slowed to a halt. Nevertheless, during 2005, Hurd developer Neal Walfield finished the initial memory management framework for

1742-415: The 200 available student positions. Due to the overwhelming response, Google expanded the program to 419 positions. The mentoring organizations were responsible for reviewing and selecting proposals, and then providing guidance to those students to help them complete their proposal. Students that successfully completed their proposal to the satisfaction of their mentoring organization were awarded $ 4500 and

1809-605: The Coyotos Operating System) to aid in and discuss the use of the Coyotos kernel for GNU/Hurd. In further discussion HURD developers realised that Coyotos (as well as other similar kernels) are not suitable for HURD. In 2007, Hurd developers Neal Walfield and Marcus Brinkmann gave a critique of the Hurd architecture, known as "the critique", and a proposal for how a future system may be designed, known as "the position paper". In 2008, Neal Walfield began working on

1876-593: The Google Summer of Code 2012 on February 4, 2012. On April 23, 2012, Google announced that 1,212 proposals were accepted in 180 organizations. For the first time since inception, the highest number of GSoC participants came from India (227) followed by the USA (173) and Germany (72). The University of Moratuwa continued its dominance with 29 selections, followed by Dhirubhai Ambani Institute of Information and Communication Technology leading from India at 3rd rank. For

1943-402: The Google Summer of Code 2014 on February 3, 2014. On April 21, 2014, Google announced that 190 open source projects and organizations would take part that year. 1,307 student project proposals were accepted. The 2014 edition was the first time for students from Ethiopia, Honduras, Kenya, Malawi and Uganda have been accepted to this program. Kenya and Cameroon taking the lead with 3 students and

2010-518: The Hurd is still not considered suitable for production environments. Development in general has not met expectations, and there are still a significant number of bugs and missing features. This has resulted in a poorer product than many, including Stallman, had expected. In 2010, after twenty years under development, Stallman said that he was "not very optimistic about the GNU Hurd. It makes some progress, but to be really superior it would require solving

2077-847: The Internet, the dominant operating systems among servers are UNIX-like open-source distributions , such as those based on Linux and FreeBSD , with Windows Server also having a significant share. Proprietary operating systems such as z/OS and macOS Server are also deployed, but in much smaller numbers. Servers that run Linux are commonly used as Webservers or Databanks. Windows Servers are used for Networks that are made out of Windows Clients. Specialist server-oriented operating systems have traditionally had features such as: In practice, today many desktop and server operating systems share similar code bases , differing mostly in configuration. In 2010, data centers (servers, cooling, and other electrical infrastructure) were responsible for 1.1–1.5% of electrical energy consumption worldwide and 1.7–2.2% in

GNU Hurd - Misplaced Pages Continue

2144-466: The L4/Hurd port, and Marcus Brinkmann ported essential parts of glibc ; namely, getting the process startup code working, allowing programs to run, thus allowing the first user programs (trivial ones such as the hello world program ) in C to run. Since 2005, Brinkmann and Walfield started researching Coyotos as a new kernel for HURD. In 2006, Brinkmann met with Jonathan Shapiro (a primary architect of

2211-574: The Mach code under a suitable license. With the release of the Linux kernel in 1991, the primary user of GNU's userland components soon became operating systems based on the Linux kernel ( Linux distributions ), prompting the coining of the term GNU/Linux . Development of the Hurd has proceeded slowly. Despite an optimistic announcement by Stallman in 2002 predicting a release of GNU/Hurd later that year,

2278-520: The Summer of Code came directly from Google's founders, Sergey Brin and Larry Page . From 2007 until 2009 Leslie Hawthorn, who has been involved in the project since 2006, was the program manager. From 2010 until 2015, Carol Smith was the program manager. In 2016, Stephanie Taylor took over management of the program. Each year, the program follows a timeline. First, open-source organizations apply to participate. If accepted, each organization provides

2345-588: The USA (127) and Sri Lanka (58). Google announced the Google Summer of Code 2016 on February 9, 2016. The deadline for organization application was set to February 19, 2016. The student application period began on March 14, 2016, and student application deadline was set to March 25, 2016. 180 organizations were accepted. It saw 18,981 total registered students (up 36% from 2015) with 7,543 student proposals from 5,107 students in 142 countries. The accepted student proposals were announced on April 22, 2016, with 1,206 student proposals accepted. The number of organizations

2412-599: The United States. One estimate is that total energy consumption for information and communications technology saves more than 5 times its carbon footprint in the rest of the economy by increasing efficiency. Global energy consumption is increasing due to the increasing demand of data and bandwidth. Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) states that data centers used 91 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) electrical energy in 2013 which accounts to 3% of global electricity usage. Environmental groups have placed focus on

2479-457: The Viengoos microkernel as a modern native kernel for HURD. As of 2009, development on Viengoos is paused due to Walfield lacking time to work on it. In the meantime, others have continued working on the Mach variant of Hurd. A number of traditional Unix concepts are replaced or extended in the Hurd. Under Unix, every running program has an associated user id , which normally corresponds to

2546-437: The abstract form of functionality, e.g. Web service . Alternatively, it may refer to a computer program that turns a computer into a server, e.g. Windows service . Originally used as "servers serve users" (and "users use servers"), in the sense of "obey", today one often says that "servers serve data", in the same sense as "give". For instance, web servers "serve [up] web pages to users" or "service their requests". The server

2613-406: The carbon emissions of data centers as it accounts to 200 million metric tons of carbon dioxide in a year. Google Summer of Code The Google Summer of Code , often abbreviated to GSoC , is an international annual program in which Google awards stipends to contributors who successfully complete a free and open-source software coding project during the summer. As of 2022 , the program

2680-421: The client, rather than the client pulling messages from the server as in request-response. The role of a server is to share data as well as to share resources and distribute work. A server computer can serve its own computer programs as well; depending on the scenario, this could be part of a quid pro quo transaction, or simply a technical possibility. The following table shows several scenarios in which

2747-468: The client, typically with a result or acknowledgment. Designating a computer as "server-class hardware" implies that it is specialized for running servers on it. This often implies that it is more powerful and reliable than standard personal computers , but alternatively, large computing clusters may be composed of many relatively simple, replaceable server components. The use of the word server in computing comes from queueing theory , where it dates to

GNU Hurd - Misplaced Pages Continue

2814-415: The common sense of a process performing service for requests, usually remote, with the 1981 version reading: SERVER n. A kind of DAEMON which performs a service for the requester, which often runs on a computer other than the one on which the server runs. The average utilization of a server in the early 2000s was 5 to 15%, but with the adoption of virtualization this figure started to increase to reduce

2881-423: The first Summer of Code, Google was criticized for not giving sufficient time to open source organizations so they could plan projects for the Summer of Code. Despite these criticisms there were 41 organizations involved, including FreeBSD , Apache , KDE, Ubuntu, Blender , Mozdev , and Google itself. According to a blog post by Chris DiBona , Google's open source program manager, "something like 30 percent of

2948-428: The first time, Mauritius , an African country, participated in the Google Summer of Code. Google announced the Google Summer of Code 2013 on February 11, 2013. On April 8, 2013, Google announced that 177 open source projects and organizations would take part that year. 1,192 student project proposals were accepted. This was the first time that Cameroon was represented in the program by 2 students. Google announced

3015-411: The go" technology include network managers, software or database developers, training centers, military personnel, law enforcement, forensics, emergency relief groups, and service organizations. To facilitate portability, features such as the keyboard , display , battery ( uninterruptible power supply , to provide power redundancy in case of failure), and mouse are all integrated into the chassis. On

3082-449: The initial Hurd architect, their early plan was to adapt the 4.4BSD -Lite kernel and, in hindsight, "It is now perfectly obvious to me that this would have succeeded splendidly and the world would be a very different place today." In 1987 Richard Stallman proposed using the Mach microkernel developed by Richard Rashid at Carnegie Mellon University . Work on this was delayed for three years due to uncertainty over whether CMU would release

3149-490: The last minute. It was then extended again to March 27. On April 11, the acceptance letters were delayed due to additional efforts involved in resolving duplicate submissions. At one point, the web interface changed each application to have a status of Not Selected . Google officials reported that only the acceptance email was the definitive indication of acceptance. In 2008, Google chose 174 open source organizations to participate in Summer of Code, greatly increased from 131

3216-458: The microkernel design would allow for all device drivers to be built as servers working in user space , but today most drivers of this kind are still contained in the GNU Mach kernel space . According to Hurd developers, the main advantage of microkernel-based design is the ability to extend the system: developing a new module would not require in depth knowledge of the rest of the kernel, and

3283-742: The mid 20th century, being notably used in Kendall (1953) (along with "service"), the paper that introduced Kendall's notation . In earlier papers, such as the Erlang (1909) , more concrete terms such as "[telephone] operators" are used. In computing, "server" dates at least to RFC 5 (1969), one of the earliest documents describing ARPANET (the predecessor of Internet ), and is contrasted with "user", distinguishing two types of host : "server-host" and "user-host". The use of "serving" also dates to early documents, such as RFC 4, contrasting "serving-host" with "using-host". The Jargon File defines server in

3350-425: The number of applications the organization has received. Finally, organizations select the top proposals to fill their slots and Google verifies eligibility before announcing accepted contributors. In the event of a single contributor being selected by more than one organization, the organization which allocates a slot to the student first is given priority. In 2005, more than 8,740 project proposals were submitted for

3417-451: The number of awards received by students for the five-year period 2005–2009 securing 79 accepted students. In 2010 Google accepted 150 software projects and 1,026 students from 69 countries worldwide. The top ten countries by number of students accepted in 2010 are: United States (197), India (125), Germany (57), Brazil (50), Poland (46), Canada (40), China (39), United Kingdom (36), France (35), Sri Lanka (34). The number of organizations

SECTION 50

#1732783022760

3484-423: The number of participating organizations more than doubled to 102. In addition to the organizations that participated in 2005, organizations such as Debian , GNU , Gentoo , Adium , PHP , and ReactOS participated in 2006. Google had decided to sponsor around 600 projects. The student application deadline was extended until 2006-05-09, at 11:00 PDT. Although the results were to be declared by 5:00 PM PDT, there

3551-494: The number of servers needed. Strictly speaking, the term server refers to a computer program or process (running program). Through metonymy , it refers to a device used for (or a device dedicated to) running one or several server programs. On a network, such a device is called a host . In addition to server , the words serve and service (as verb and as noun respectively) are frequently used, though servicer and servant are not. The word service (noun) may refer to

3618-460: The official mailing list, adding that "We're very deeply sorry for this. If you received two e-mails, one that said you were accepted and one that you were not, this means you were not." Google has released a final list of projects accepted into the program on the SoC website. The proposals themselves were visible to the public for a few hours, after which they were taken down in response to complaints by

3685-673: The other countries with one student. Google announced the Google Summer of Code 2015 on February 9, 2015. On March 2, 2015, Google announced that 137 open source projects and organizations would take part that year, some notable exceptions including Mozilla , the Linux Foundation , and the Tor Project . The student application period began on March 16, 2015. The accepted student proposals were announced on April 27, 2015, with 1051 student proposals accepted. The highest number of GSoC participants came from India (335) followed by

3752-429: The participants about the "sensitive and private" information that their applications contained. However, Google has since resolved these issues by allowing each student involved in Summer of Code to provide a brief abstract message that is publicly viewable and completely separate from the content of the actual proposal that was submitted to Google. The Summer of Code 2006 ended on 2006-09-08. According to Google, 82% of

3819-564: The running server without shutting it down, and to guard against overheating, servers might have more powerful fans or use water cooling . They will often be able to be configured, powered up and down, or rebooted remotely, using out-of-band management , typically based on IPMI . Server casings are usually flat and wide , and designed to be rack-mounted, either on 19-inch racks or on Open Racks . These types of servers are often housed in dedicated data centers . These will normally have very stable power and Internet and increased security. Noise

3886-501: The second place in "2008 GSoC Accepted: Top 10 Universities" category, while Universidade Estadual de Campinas became second in "2008 GSoC Applicants: Top 10 Universities" category. For 2009 Google reduced the number of software projects to 150, and capped the number of student projects it would accept at 1,000, 85 percent of which were successfully completed. As of 2009, University of Moratuwa in Sri Lanka ranks first in terms of

3953-412: The server's purpose and its software. Servers often are more powerful and expensive than the clients that connect to them. The name server is used both for the hardware and software pieces. For the hardware servers, it is usually limited to mean the high-end machines although software servers can run on a variety of hardwares. Since servers are usually accessed over a network, many run unattended without

4020-443: The students received a positive evaluation at the end of the program. In 2007, Google accepted 131 organizations and over 900 students. Those 131 organizations had a total of nearly 1500 mentors. Students were allowed to submit up to 20 applications although only one could be accepted. Google received nearly 6,200 applications. To allow more students to apply, Google extended the application deadline from March 24 to March 26 at

4087-570: The students stuck with their groups past SoC [Summer of Code]." Mozilla developer Gervase Markham also commented that none of the 10 Google-sponsored Mozilla projects survived after the event. However, the Gaim (now Pidgin) project was able to enlist enough coding support through the event to include the changes into Gaim (now Pidgin) 2.0; the Jabber Software Foundation (now XMPP Standards Foundation) and KDE project also counted

SECTION 60

#1732783022760

4154-430: The user that started the process . This id largely dictates the actions permitted to the program. No outside process can change the user id of a running program. A Hurd process, on the other hand, runs under a set of user ids, which can contain multiple ids, one, or none. A sufficiently privileged process can add and remove ids to another process. For example, there is a password server that will hand out ids in return for

4221-658: The year before and 102 in 2006. Each organization was chosen based on a number of criteria, such as the virtue of the projects, the ideas given for students to work on, and the ability of the mentors to ensure students successfully completed projects. Nearly 7100 proposals were received for the 2008 Summer of Code, of which 1125 were selected. The university results were announced on May 8, 2008 at Google's "Open Source at Google" blog. According to it, University of Moratuwa came first in both "Top 10 Universities of 2008 GSoC applicants" and "Top 10 accepted universities 2008 GSoC" categories. Wrocław University of Technology able to secure

4288-512: Was considerable delay in publishing it as Google had not expected several students to be selected in more than one organization. Google allows one student to undertake only one project as part of the program. It took Google several hours to resolve the duplicate acceptances. The acceptance letters were sent out on May 24, at 3:13 AM PDT, but the letters were also sent out to some 1,600 applicants who had in fact, not been accepted by Google's SoC committee. At 3:38 AM PDT, Chris DiBona posted an apology to

4355-468: Was increased to 175, of which 50 were new. 1,115 students were accepted. A total of 595 different universities participated in the program, 160 of which were new to the program. The 13 universities with the highest number of students accepted into the 2011 Google Summer of Code account for 14.5% of the students. University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka secured first position in 2011's program with 27 accepted students. Polytechnic University of Bucharest, Romania

4422-648: Was increased to 201, of which 39 were new. The 1,318 students accepted into the program hailed from 575 universities, of which 142 have students participating for the first time. Over 20,651 students from 144 countries registered for the program, which is an 8.8% increase over the previous high for the program. 4,764 students from 108 countries submitted a total of 7,089 project proposals. 212 organizations were accepted in 2018. 207 organizations were accepted in 2019. 199 organizations and 1199 student projects were accepted in 2020. 202 organizations and 1292 student projects were accepted in 2021. Google announced

4489-423: Was the second with 23 accepted students while Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India placed third with 14 students. The breakdown of college degrees for the 2011 Google Summer of Code program was as follows: 55% of the students were undergraduates, 23.3% were pursuing their master's degrees, 10.2% were working on their PhDs and 11.5% did not specify which degree they were working toward. Google announced

#759240