55-527: See text for species. Lopima Dochnahl Hazels are plants of the genus Corylus of deciduous trees and large shrubs native to the temperate Northern Hemisphere. The genus is usually placed in the birch family Betulaceae , though some botanists split the hazels (with the hornbeams and allied genera) into a separate family Corylaceae. The fruit of the hazel is the hazelnut . Hazels have simple, rounded leaves with double-serrate margins. The flowers are produced very early in spring before
110-539: A protection forest against an avalanche) is not the sole management objective of the woodland. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the technology of charcoal iron production became widely established in England, continuing in some areas until the late 19th century Along with the growing need for oak bark for tanning , this required large amounts of coppice wood. With this coppice management, wood could be provided for those growing industries in principle indefinitely. This
165-399: A behavior known as " marcescence " whereby dead leaves are not shed in the fall and remain on the tree until being blown off by the weather. This is caused by incomplete development of the abscission layer. It is mainly seen in the seedling and sapling stage, although mature trees may have marcescence of leaves on the lower branches. A number of deciduous plants remove nitrogen and carbon from
220-472: A construction material was gradually replaced by newer materials. Coppicing died out first in the north of Britain and steadily contracted toward the south-east until by the 1960s active commercial coppice was heavily concentrated in Kent and Sussex. The shoots (or suckers ) may be used either in their young state for interweaving in wattle fencing (as is the practice with coppiced willows and hazel ), or
275-602: A greater rate of transpiration (and hence CO 2 uptake as this occurs when stomata are open) during the summer growth period. The deciduous characteristic has developed repeatedly among woody plants. Trees include maple , many oaks and nothofagus , elm , beech , aspen , and birch , among others, as well as a number of coniferous genera , such as larch and Metasequoia . Deciduous shrubs include honeysuckle , viburnum , and many others. Most temperate woody vines are also deciduous, including grapes , poison ivy , Virginia creeper , wisteria , etc. The characteristic
330-432: A high-forest structure. Coppice and pollard growth is a response of the tree to damage, and can occur naturally. Trees may be browsed or broken by large herbivorous animals , such as cattle or elephants , felled by beavers or blown over by the wind . Some trees, such as linden , may produce a line of coppice shoots from a fallen trunk, and sometimes these develop into a line of mature trees. For some trees, such as
385-461: A landscape-scale industry is something that remains of special importance in southern England. Many of the English language terms referenced in this article are particularly relevant to historic and contemporary practice in that area. Typically a coppiced woodland is harvested in sections or coups on a rotation. In this way, a crop is available each year somewhere in the woodland. Coppicing has
440-574: A living wholly or partly by working coppices in the area today, at places such as at the Weald and Downland Living Museum . Coppices provided wood for many purposes, especially charcoal before coal was economically significant in metal smelting . A minority of these woods are still operated for coppice today, often by conservation organisations , producing material for hurdle -making, thatching spars, local charcoal-burning or other crafts. The only remaining large-scale commercial coppice crop in England
495-505: A number of years, the coppiced trees are harvested, and the cycle begins anew. Pollarding is a similar process carried out at a higher level on the tree in order to prevent grazing animals from eating new shoots. Daisugi (台杉, where sugi refers to Japanese cedar ), is a similar Japanese technique. Many silviculture practices involve cutting and regrowth; coppicing has been of significance in many parts of lowland temperate Europe. The widespread and long-term practice of coppicing as
550-569: A patchwork of leafy and leafless trees. Coppicing Coppicing / ˈ k ɒ p ɪ s ɪ ŋ / is the traditional method in woodland management of cutting down a tree to a stump , which in many species encourages new shoots to grow from the stump or roots, thus ultimately regrowing the tree. A forest or grove that has been subject to coppicing is called a copse / k ɒ p s / or coppice , in which young tree stems are repeatedly cut down to near ground level. The resulting living stumps are called stools . New growth emerges, and after
605-409: A sacred pool, dropping into the water nuts that were eaten by salmon (a fish sacred to Druids ), which absorbed the wisdom. A Druid teacher, in his bid to become omniscient , caught one of these special salmon and asked a student to cook the fish, but not to eat it. While he was cooking it, a blister formed and the pupil used his thumb to burst it, which he naturally sucked to cool, thereby absorbing
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#1732765925263660-411: A tree that is the site where the girl's wishes are granted by birds. Deciduous In the fields of horticulture and botany , the term deciduous ( / d ɪ ˈ s ɪ dʒ u . ə s / ) means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed leaves , usually in the autumn ; to the shedding of petals , after flowering; and to
715-550: A tri-annual cut can happen. This seems to maximize the production volume from the stand. Such frequent growth means the soils can be easily depleted and so fertilizers are often required. The stock also becomes exhausted after some years and so will be replaced with new plants. The method of harvesting of energy wood can be mechanized by adaptation of specialized agricultural machinery. Species and cultivars vary in when they should be cut, regeneration times and other factors. However, full life cycle analysis has shown that poplars have
770-632: Is sweet chestnut which is grown in parts of Sussex and Kent . Much of this was established as plantations in the 19th century for hop-pole production (hop-poles are used to support the hop plant while growing hops ) and is nowadays cut on a 12 to 18-year cycle for splitting and binding into cleft chestnut paling fence , or on a 20- to 35-year cycle for cleft post-and-rail fencing, or for sawing into small lengths to be finger-jointed for architectural use. Other material goes to make farm fencing and to be chipped for modern wood-fired heating systems. In northwest England , coppice-with-standards has been
825-606: Is a deciduous woody shrub found in Japan . Forests where a majority of the trees lose their foliage at the end of the typical growing season are called deciduous forests. These forests are found in many areas worldwide and have distinctive ecosystems, understory growth, and soil dynamics. Two distinctive types of deciduous forests are found growing around the world. Temperate deciduous forest biomes are plant communities distributed in North and South America, Asia, Southern slopes of
880-479: Is a habitat of relatively low biodiversity —it does not support the open-woodland species, but neither does it support many of the characteristic species of high forest , because it lacks many high-forest features such as substantial dead-wood, clearings and stems of varied ages. Suitable conservation management of these abandoned coppices may be to restart coppice management, or in some cases it may be more appropriate to use singling and selective clearance to establish
935-543: Is a traditional material used for making wattle , withy fencing, baskets, and the frames of coracle boats. The tree can be coppiced , and regenerating shoots allow for harvests every few years. There is a 7 year cycle (cut and grow) for hurdle (fence) making. Hazels are used as food plants by the larvae of various species of Lepidoptera including Eriocrania chrysolepidella . The Celts believed hazelnuts gave one wisdom and inspiration. There are numerous variations on an ancient tale that nine hazel trees grew around
990-537: Is always another recently cut coup nearby, and the populations therefore move around, following the coppice management. However, most British coppices have not been managed in this way for many decades. The coppice stems have grown tall (the coppice is said to be overstood ), forming a heavily shaded woodland of many closely spaced stems with little ground vegetation. The open-woodland animals survive in small numbers along woodland rides or not at all, and many of these once-common species have become rare. Overstood coppice
1045-700: Is completed (marked by the transition from bright green spring leaves to dark green summer ones) the chlorophyll level in the leaves remains stable until cool temperatures arrive in autumn. When autumn arrives and the days are shorter or when plants are drought-stressed, the chlorophyll steadily breaks down, allowing other pigments present in the leaf to become apparent and resulting in non-green colored foliage. The brightest leaf colors are produced when days grow short and nights are cool, but remain above freezing. These other pigments include carotenoids that are yellow, brown, and orange. Anthocyanin pigments produce red and purple colors, though they are not always present in
1100-458: Is disputed, with World Flora Online and the Flora of China differing in which taxa are accepted, within this region. WFO accepts 17 species while Flora of China accepts 20 species (including Corylus mandshurica ). Only those taxa accepted by both sources are listed below. The species are grouped as follows: Several hybrids exist, and they can occur between species in different sections of
1155-400: Is formed between the leaf petiole and the stem. This layer is formed in the spring during active new growth of the leaf; it consists of layers of cells that can separate from each other. The cells are sensitive to a plant hormone called auxin that is produced by the leaf and other parts of the plant. When auxin coming from the leaf is produced at a rate consistent with that from the body of
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#17327659252631210-502: Is one of two kinds of host for the rare Hypocreopsis rhododendri . Several rare species of Graphidion lichen depend on hazel trees. In the UK, five species of moth are specialised to feed on hazel including Parornix devoniella . Animals which eat hazelnuts include red deer , dormouse and red squirrel . The nuts of all hazels are edible. The common hazel is the species most extensively grown for its nuts, followed in importance by
1265-530: Is useful in plant identification; for instance in parts of Southern California and the American Southeast , deciduous and evergreen oak species may grow side by side. Periods of leaf fall often coincide with seasons: winter in the case of cool-climate plants or the dry-season in the case of tropical plants, however there are no deciduous species among tree-like monocotyledonous plants, e.g. palms , yuccas , and dracaenas . The hydrangea hirta
1320-468: The common beech ( Fagus sylvatica ), coppicing is more or less easy depending on the altitude: it is much more efficient for trees in the montane zone . Coppicing of willow , alder and poplar for energy wood has proven commercially successful. The Willow Biomass Project in the United States is an example of this. In this case the coppicing is done in a way that an annual or more likely
1375-456: The dry season or other seasons, depending on variations in rainfall . The converse of deciduous is evergreen , where foliage is shed on a different schedule from deciduous plants, therefore appearing to remain green year round because not all the leaves are shed at the same time. Plants that are intermediate may be called semi-deciduous ; they lose old foliage as new growth begins. Other plants are semi-evergreen and lose their leaves before
1430-514: The filbert . Nuts are also harvested from the other species, but apart from the filbert, none is of significant commercial importance. A number of cultivars of the common hazel and filbert are grown as ornamental plants in gardens , including forms with contorted stems ( C. avellana 'Contorta', popularly known as "Corkscrew hazel" or " Harry Lauder 's walking stick" from its gnarled appearance); with weeping branches ( C. avellana 'Pendula'); and with purple leaves ( C. maxima 'Purpurea'). Hazel
1485-503: The foliage before they are shed and store them in the form of proteins in the vacuoles of parenchyma cells in the roots and the inner bark. In the spring, these proteins are used as a nitrogen source during the growth of new leaves or flowers. Plants with deciduous foliage have advantages and disadvantages compared to plants with evergreen foliage. Since deciduous plants lose their leaves to conserve water or to better survive winter weather conditions, they must regrow new foliage during
1540-844: The Himalayas, Europe and for cultivation purposes in Oceania. They have formed under climatic conditions which have great seasonable temperature variability. Growth occurs during warm summers, leaf drop in autumn, and dormancy during cold winters. These seasonally distinctive communities have diverse life forms that are impacted greatly by the seasonality of their climate, mainly temperature and precipitation rates. These varying and regionally different ecological conditions produce distinctive forest plant communities in different regions. Tropical and subtropical deciduous forest biomes have developed in response not to seasonal temperature variations but to seasonal rainfall patterns. During prolonged dry periods
1595-521: The competing stems grow out from the stool in the early stages of the cycle, then up toward the sky as the canopy closes. The curve may allow the identification of coppice timber in archaeological sites. Timber in the Sweet Track in Somerset (built in the winter of 3807 and 3806 BCE ) has been identified as coppiced Tilia species. Originally, the silvicultural system now called coppicing
1650-428: The earliest trees to lose their leaves in the fall. In sub-Arctic climates such as Alaska , leaves begin turning colors as early as August. However, for most temperate regions it takes place in late September through early November and in subtropical climates such as the southern US, it may be November into December. Leaf drop or abscission involves complex physiological signals and changes within plants. When leafout
1705-479: The effect of providing a rich variety of habitats, as the woodland always has a range of different-aged coppice growing in it, which is beneficial for biodiversity . The cycle length depends upon the species cut, the local custom, and the use of the product. Birch can be coppiced for faggots on a three- or four-year cycle, whereas oak can be coppiced over a fifty-year cycle for poles or firewood . Trees being coppiced do not die of old age as coppicing maintains
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1760-701: The fall months and the Western United States as it has more evergreen and fewer deciduous plants, combined with the West Coast and its maritime climate. ( See also : Autumn leaf color ) Most of the Southern Hemisphere lacks deciduous plants due to its milder winters and smaller landmass, most of which is nearer the equator with only far southern South America and the southern island of New Zealand producing distinct fall colors. The beginnings of leaf drop starts when an abscission layer
1815-579: The fish's wisdom. This boy was called Fionn Mac Cumhail (Fin McCool) and went on to become one of the most heroic leaders in Gaelic mythology . "The Hazel Branch" from Grimms' Fairy Tales claims that hazel branches offer the greatest protection from snakes and other things that creep on the earth. In the Grimm tale "Cinderella", a hazel branch is planted by the protagonist at her mother's grave and grows into
1870-591: The flowers can be damaged by frost or, in dry season regions, result in water stress on the plant. Spring leafout and fall leaf drop are triggered by a combination of daylight and air temperatures. The exact conditions required will vary with the species, but generally more cold-tolerant genera such as Salix will leaf-out earlier and lose their leaves later, while genera such as Fraxinus and Juglans can only grow in warm, frost-free conditions so they need at least 13 hours of daylight and air temperatures of around 70 °F (21 °C) to leaf out. They will be among
1925-426: The foliage is dropped to conserve water and prevent death from drought. Leaf drop is not seasonally dependent as it is in temperate climates. It can occur any time of year and varies by region of the world. Even within a small local area there can be variations in the timing and duration of leaf drop; different sides of the same mountain and areas that have high water tables or areas along streams and rivers can produce
1980-502: The genus, e.g. Corylus × colurnoides ( C. avellana × C. colurna ). The oldest confirmed hazel species is Corylus johnsonii found as fossils in the Ypresian -age rocks of Ferry County, Washington . Chilean hazel ( Gevuina avellana ), despite its name, is not related to this genus. At least 21 species of fungus have a mutualistic relationship with hazel. Lactarius pyrogalus grows almost exclusively on hazel, and hazel
2035-417: The humid maritime climate and lower overall species diversity . It is also a factor that the continental United States and southern Canada are at a lower latitude than northern Europe, so the sun during the fall months is higher and stronger. This combination of strong sun and cool temperatures leads to more intense fall colors. The Southern United States also has poor fall colors due to warm temperatures during
2090-448: The leaves, and are monoecious , with single-sex catkins . The male catkins are pale yellow and 5–12 centimetres (2– 4 + 3 ⁄ 4 inches) long, and the female ones are very small and largely concealed in the buds, with only the bright-red, 1-to-3 mm-long styles visible. The fruits are nuts 1–2.5 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 –1 in) long and 1–2 cm diameter, surrounded by an involucre (husk) which partly to fully encloses
2145-470: The leaves. Rather, they are produced in the foliage in late summer, when sugars are trapped in the leaves after the process of abscission begins. Parts of the world that have showy displays of bright autumn colors are limited to locations where days become short and nights are cool. The New England region of the United States and southeastern Canada tend to produce particularly good autumn colors for this reason, with Europe producing generally poorer colors due to
2200-531: The martial art Canne de combat (also known as Bâton français ). Some Eucalyptus species are coppiced in a number of countries, including Australia, North America, Uganda, and Sudan. The Sal tree is coppiced in India, and the Moringa oleifera tree is coppiced in many countries, including India. Sometimes former coppice is converted to high-forest woodland by the practice of singling. All but one of
2255-415: The new shoots may be allowed to grow into large poles, as was often the custom with trees such as oaks or ashes . This creates long, straight poles which do not have the bends and forks of naturally grown trees. Coppicing may be practised to encourage specific growth patterns, as with cinnamon trees which are grown for their bark. Another, more complicated system is called compound coppice . Here some of
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2310-412: The next growing season, retaining some during winter or dry periods. Many deciduous plants flower during the period when they are leafless, as this increases the effectiveness of pollination . The absence of leaves improves wind transmission of pollen for wind-pollinated plants and increases the visibility of the flowers to insects in insect-pollinated plants. This strategy is not without risks, as
2365-783: The next suitable growing season; this uses resources which evergreens do not need to expend. Evergreens suffer greater water loss during the winter and they also can experience greater predation pressure , especially when small. Deciduous trees experience much less branch and trunk breakage from glaze ice storms when leafless, and plants can reduce water loss due to the reduction in availability of liquid water during cold winter days. Losing leaves in winter may reduce damage from insects; repairing leaves and keeping them functional may be more costly than just losing and regrowing them. Removing leaves also reduces cavitation which can damage xylem vessels in plants. This then allows deciduous plants to have xylem vessels with larger diameters and therefore
2420-500: The norm, the standards often of oak with relatively little simple coppice. After World War II , a great deal was planted up with conifers or became neglected. Coppice-working almost died out, though a few men continued in the woods. Coppice management favours a range of wildlife, often of species adapted to open woodland. After cutting, the increased light allows existing woodland-floor vegetation such as bluebell , anemone and primrose to grow vigorously. Often brambles grow around
2475-499: The nut. The shape and structure of the involucre , and also the growth habit (whether a tree or a suckering shrub), are important in the identification of the different species of hazel. The pollen of hazel species, which are often the cause for allergies in late winter or early spring, can be identified under magnification (600×) by their characteristic granular exines bearing three conspicuous pores. Corylus has around 14–18 species. The circumscription of species in eastern Asia
2530-469: The plant, the cells of the abscission layer remain connected; in autumn, or when under stress, the auxin flow from the leaf decreases or stops, triggering cellular elongation within the abscission layer. The elongation of these cells breaks the connection between the different cell layers, allowing the leaf to break away from the plant. It also forms a layer that seals the break, so the plant does not lose sap. Some trees, particularly oaks and beeches, exhibit
2585-559: The regrowing stems are cut, leaving the remaining one to grow as if it were a maiden (uncut) tree. The boundaries of coppice coups were sometimes marked by cutting certain trees as pollards or stubs. In southern Britain , coppice was traditionally hazel , hornbeam , field maple , ash , sweet chestnut , occasionally sallow , elm , small-leafed lime and rarely oak or beech , grown among pedunculate or sessile oak, ash or beech standards. In wet areas alder and willows were used. A small, and growing, number of people make
2640-537: The resulting forest product from any one area. The woodland provides the small material from the coppice as well as a range of larger timber for such uses as house building , bridge repair , cart-making and so on. In the 18th century coppicing in Britain began a long decline. This was brought about by the erosion of its traditional markets. Firewood was no longer needed for domestic or industrial uses as coal and coke became easily obtained and transported, and wood as
2695-486: The shedding of ripe fruit . The antonym of deciduous in the botanical sense is evergreen . Generally, the term "deciduous" means "the dropping of a part that is no longer needed or useful" and the "falling away after its purpose is finished". In plants, it is the result of natural processes. "Deciduous" has a similar meaning when referring to animal parts, such as deciduous antlers in deer , deciduous teeth (baby teeth) in some mammals (including humans); or decidua ,
2750-529: The standards would be left, some harvested. Some of the coppice would be allowed to grow into new standards and some regenerated coppice would be there. Thus there would be three age classes. Coppiced hardwoods were used extensively in carriage and shipbuilding , and they are still sometimes grown for making wooden buildings and furniture. Withies for wicker -work are grown in coppices of various willow species, principally osier . In France, sweet chestnut trees are coppiced for use as canes and bâtons for
2805-464: The stools, encouraging insects, or various small mammals that can use the brambles as protection from larger predators. Woodpiles (if left in the coppice) encourage insects such as beetles to come into an area. The open area is then colonised by many animals such as nightingale , European nightjar and fritillary butterflies . As the coup grows, the canopy closes and it becomes unsuitable for these animals again—but in an actively managed coppice there
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#17327659252632860-420: The tree at a juvenile stage, allowing them to reach immense ages. The age of a stool may be estimated from its diameter; some are so large—as much as 5.5 metres (18 ft) across—that they are thought to have been continually coppiced for centuries. Evidence suggests that coppicing has been continuously practised since pre-history. Coppiced stems are characteristically curved at the base. This curve occurs as
2915-464: The uterine lining that sheds off after birth. In botany and horticulture , deciduous plants , including trees , shrubs and herbaceous perennials, are those that lose all of their leaves for part of the year. This process is called abscission . In some cases leaf loss coincides with winter—namely in temperate or polar climates . In other parts of the world, including tropical, subtropical, and arid regions, plants lose their leaves during
2970-860: Was practiced solely for small wood production. In German this is called Niederwald , which translates as low forest. Later on in Mediaeval times, farmers encouraged pigs to feed from acorns, and so some trees were allowed to grow bigger. This different silvicultural system is called in English coppice with standards . In German this is called Mittelwald (middle forest). As modern forestry ( Hochwald in German, which translates as High forest ) seeks to harvest timber mechanically, and pigs are generally no longer fed from acorns, both systems have declined. However, there are cultural and wildlife benefits from these two silvicultural systems, so both can be found where timber production or some other main forestry purpose (such as
3025-435: Was regulated by a statute of 1544 of Henry VIII , which required woods to be enclosed after cutting (to prevent browsing by animals) and 12 standels ( standards or mature uncut trees) to be left in each acre, to be grown into timber. Coppice with standards (scattered individual stems allowed to grow on through several coppice cycles) has been commonly used throughout most of Europe as a means of giving greater flexibility in
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