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44-576: According to Roper (1930), the name Haɖanɖiwa is made up of haɖa 'lion' and (n)ɖiwa 'clan'. Other variants are Haɖai ɖiwa , Hanɖiwa and Haɖaatʼar (children of lioness). The language of the Hadendoa is a dialect of Bedawi . The southern Beja were part of the Christian kingdom of Axum during the sixth to fourteenth centuries. In the fifteenth century, Axum fell to the Islamization of

88-412: A voiced alveolar fricative , but a consonant of unknown value. Ehret proposes that it might be a voiced palatal plosive /ɟ/ . Some linguists and paleographers believe that they have uncovered evidence of an earlier stage of Beja, referred to in different publications as "Old Bedauye" or "Old Beja." Helmut Satzinger has identified the names found on several third century CE ostraca (potsherds) from

132-404: A clitic definite article, or have an indefinite suffix. Definite articles indicate gender, number, and case. The indefinite suffix marks gender only, and does not appear in the nominative case. For feminine common nouns, the indefinite suffix is -t ; for masculine nouns and feminine proper nouns, -b . The indefinite suffixes only appear after vowels. The definite article is proclitic. It has

176-413: A corresponding deverbal noun (Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa: "noun of action"; Vanhove: "action noun"; Roper: "nomen actionis"). For weak verbs, the deverbal noun is formed by a suffix -ti attached to the imperative root (see above). For strong verbs, deverbal nouns are not entirely predictable. Examples: There are patterns in strong verb deverbal nouns related to the structure of the citation form of

220-440: A fixed root. Verbs conjugate for a number of tense, aspect, modality, and polarity variations, which have been given different names by different linguists: (Roper analyzes additional subjunctive forms where Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa, and Vanhove see a conditional particle.) Each of the above forms has a corresponding negative. (Vanhove refers to the imperative negative as the "prohibitive".) The past continuous and past share

264-464: A manner converb -a . The past continuous stem for strong verbs is not derivable from any other verb stem. The negative of the past continuous is identical to that of the past: There is only one past tense negative form. For both weak and strong verbs, the past negative is formed through a deverbal participial or converbal form (see above) followed by the present negative of the irregular verb aka "to be". Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa describe

308-552: A modified Kurdish yā' ێ ; in the system devised by Muhammad Adaroob Muhammad it is represented by yā' with a shaddah يّ ; in the Red Sea University system, it is not distinguished from the yā' for /j/ or /iː/ . In the Usakana system, /oː/ is written with a modified Kurdish wāw ۆ ; in the system devised by Muhammad Adaroob Muhammad it is represented by wāw with a shaddah وّ ; in the Red Sea University system, it

352-523: A number of linguistic innovations that are unique to it, as is also the situation with the other subgroups of Cushitic (e.g. idiosyncratic features in Agaw or Central Cushitic). The characteristics of Beja that differ from those of other Cushitic languages are likewise generally acknowledged as normal branch variation. The relation of the Northern Cushitic branch of Cushitic to the other branches

396-451: A past negative. Negative forms are not derived from corresponding positive forms, but are independent conjugations. Every verb has a corresponding deverbal noun, which Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa refer to as a "noun of action", Vanhove calls an "action noun", and Roper a "nomen actionis". Numerous serial verb constructions exist which connote different aspectual and potential meanings. The third person masculine singular positive imperative

440-529: A use: To distinguish between /ɖ/ and /dh/ , ⟨dh⟩ is used for the former and ⟨deh⟩ for the latter. Similarly, ⟨keh⟩ is /kh/ , ⟨teh⟩ is /th/ , ⟨seh⟩ is /sh/ . Single ⟨o⟩ is not used. In all Arabic orthographies, short vowels are written with the same diacritics used in Arabic: fatḥah for /a/ ( ـَ ), kasrah for /i/ ( ـِ ), ḍammah for /u/ ( ـُ ). 'Alif (ا)

484-599: Is 2,759,000. The name Beja , derived from Arabic : بجا , romanized :  bijā , is most common in English-language literature. Native speakers use the term Bidhaawyeet (indefinite) or Tubdhaawi (definite). Beja is held by most linguists to be part of the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic family, constituting the only member of the Northern Cushitic subgroup. As such, Beja contains

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528-569: Is a consonantal sound. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the alveolar consonants (the same symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that are not palatalized ), it can represent the sound as in a number of ways including ⟨ ð̠ ⟩ or ⟨ ð͇ ⟩ ( retracted or alveolarized [ð] , respectively), ⟨ ɹ̝ ⟩ (constricted [ɹ] ), or ⟨ d̞ ⟩ (lowered [d] ). Few languages also have

572-399: Is a fixed stem followed by a present/imperfective conjugated form of the verb diya "to say." Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa's strong stem is similar to the past continuous/aorist stem (next section), and identical for all numbers, genders, and persons, except the first person plural, which has a prefixed n- . For Vanhove, there are distinct singular and plural stems which are identical to

616-418: Is based on the past/perfective stem, and the persons are based on the future stem; no negative jussive is given: They give various examples of the jussive with translations into English, in order to give a sense of the meaning: Vanhove identifies a complex "potential" form composed of a nominalizing suffix -at followed by a present/imperfective reduced conjugation of the verb m'a 'come' ( eeya in

660-422: Is being described. The voiced alveolar sibilant is common across European languages , but is relatively uncommon cross-linguistically compared to the voiceless variant . Only about 28% of the world's languages contain a voiced dental or alveolar sibilant. Moreover, 85% of the languages with some form of [z] are languages of Europe , Africa , or Western Asia . The voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative

704-403: Is followed by a present tense/imperfective conjugated form of the verb diya "to say", as the future is. There is distinct disagreement between the major grammars of the past century on the modal conjugation or conjugations referred to as "jussive," "optative," and "potential." Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa describe a "jussive" with the following paradigm. For strong verbs, the first person

748-446: Is identical to that of the past continuous/aorist (above). The present or imperfective has two stems for positive strong verbs, while the negative strong stem is identical to that used for the imperative (and thus also for past/perfective verbs). Weak negative verbs add the prefix ka- to positive past/perfective forms. The strong future stem is described differently by Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa and by Vanhove. Both agree that it

792-454: Is not distinguished from the wāw for /w/ or /uː/ . Pitch accent is not marked in any orthography. In Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa (2006 and 2007), stressed syllables are indicated in boldface. In addition to these two systems and several academic systems of transcribing Beja texts, it is possible that Beja was at least occasionally written in the Greek alphabet -based Coptic script during

836-532: Is that used by the Eritrean government and was used in a literacy program at Red Sea University in Port Sudan from 2010 to 2013. Three Arabic orthographies have seen limited use: The first below was that used by the now defunct Website Sakanab; the second was devised by Muhammad Adaroob Muhammad and used in his translation of E.M. Roper's Beja lexicon; the third was devised by Mahmud Ahmad Abu Bikr Ooriib, and

880-421: Is the citation form of the verb. Weak verbs have a long final suffix -aa while strong verbs have a short final suffix -a . For both weak and strong verbs, the negative imperative is formed by an identical set of prefixes baa- (for masculine singular and common plural) and bii- (for feminine singular). Strong verbs use a negative imperative root which has a lengthened vowel. Every Beja verb has

924-482: Is unknown. Christopher Ehret proposes, based on the devoicing of Proto-Cushitic voiced velar fricatives, that Northern Cushitic is possibly more closely related to South Cushitic than to the other branches. The identification of Beja as an independent branch of Cushitic dates to the work of Enrico Cerulli between 1925 and 1951. Due to Beja's linguistic innovations, Robert Hetzron argued that it constituted an independent branch of Afroasiatic. Hetzron's proposal

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968-424: Is used as the conjugated auxiliary. (NB: Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa see verbs of the form CiCiC as having identical past continuous [aorist] and future stems. Some verbs of other forms have different stems, which would lead to a greater divergence between the forms described by them and those described by Vanhove.) E.M. Roper, describing the same dialect as Vanhove, identifies the stem employed as being identical to

1012-405: Is used as the seat for these diacritics at the beginning of a word. Long /aː/ is written with 'alif ( ا ) preceded by fatḥah, or alif maddah ( آ ) when word-initial. Long /iː/ is written with yā' ي preceded by kasrah. Long /uː/ is written with wāw و preceded by ḍammah. The systems vary on the representation of long /eː/ and long /oː/ . In the Usakana system, /eː/ is written with

1056-779: The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (the United Kingdom and Egypt were exercising joint sovereignty in Sudan. They fought the British infantry square in many battles, such as in the Battle of Tamai in 1884 and in the Battle of Tofrek in 1885 and earned an enviable reputation for their bravery. After the reconquest of the Egyptian Sudan (1896–1898), the Hadendoa accepted the new order without demur. In World War II,

1100-473: The voiced alveolar tapped fricative , which is simply a very brief apical alveolar non-sibilant fricative, with the tongue making the gesture for a tapped stop but not making full contact. It can be indicated in the IPA with the lowering diacritic to show that full occlusion does not occur. Flapped fricatives are theoretically possible but are not attested. The voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative (also known as

1144-603: The Eastern Desert as likely Blemmye , representing a form of Old Beja. He also identifies several epigraphic texts from the fifth and sixth centuries as representing a later form of the same language. Nubiologist Gerald Browne, Egyptologist Helmut Satzinger, and Cushiticist Klaus Wedekind believed that an ostracon discovered in a monastery in Saqqarah also represents the Old Beja language. Browne and Wedekind identified

1188-825: The Hadendoa allied themselves with the British against the Italians . Beja language Beja ( Bidhaawyeet or Tubdhaawi ) is an Afroasiatic language of the Cushitic branch spoken on the western coast of the Red Sea by the Beja people . Its speakers inhabit parts of Egypt , Sudan and Eritrea . In 2022 there were 2,550,000 Beja speakers in Sudan, and 121,000 Beja speakers in Eritrea according to Ethnologue . As of 2023 there are an estimated 88,000 Beja speakers in Egypt. The total number of speakers in all three countries

1232-673: The Middle Ages. Beja nouns and adjectives have two genders: masculine and feminine, two numbers: singular and plural, two cases: nominative and oblique, and may be definite, indefinite, or in construct state . Gender, case, and definiteness are not marked on the noun itself, but on clitics and affixes. Singular-plural pairs in Beja are unpredictable. Plurals may be formed by: A small number of nouns do not distinguish between singular and plural forms. Some nouns are always plural. A few nouns have suppletive plurals. A noun may be prefixed by

1276-468: The Sudan region , and although the Beja were never entirely subjugated, they were absorbed into Islam via marriages and trade contracts. In the seventeenth century, some of the Beja expanded southward, conquering better pastures. These became the Hadendoa, who by the eighteenth century were the dominant people of eastern Sudan, and always at war with the Bisharin tribe . Extensive anthropological research

1320-406: The article on the noun itself does not indicate case. However, agreeing adjectives will be marked for oblique case. No article or indefinite suffix may be applied to the possessed noun. The possessed noun follows the possessor. Examples: (The noun tak 'man' has the suppletive plural (n)da 'men'; raaw 'friend' has the shortened plural raw 'friends'.) Postpositions follow nouns in

1364-458: The definite article are used which do not distinguish between cases, but maintain gender distinctions. In some dialects (e.g. that described by Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa for Port Sudan) the reduced forms maintain number distinctions; in others (e.g. that described by Vanhove and Roper for Sinkat) they do not. Possessive relationships are shown through a genitive suffix -ii (singular possessed) or -ee (plural possessed) which attaches to

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1408-568: The first- and third-person forms are identical. The copular subject will be in the nominative case, the copular complement in the oblique. Oblique -b becomes -w before -wa . Copular complements that end in a vowel will employ an epenthetic y between the final vowel and any vowel-initial copular clitic. Examples: Beja verbs have two different types, first noted by Almkvist: "strong verbs," which conjugate with both prefixes and suffixes and have several principal parts ; and "weak verbs," which conjugate with suffixes only and which have

1452-488: The following forms with masculine monosyllabic nouns that do not begin with /h/ or /ʔ/ (note that an initial glottal stop is usually omitted in writing, and that all words that appear to be vowel-initial actually begin with a glottal stop): The feminine definite articles begin with ⟨ t ⟩ but are otherwise identical ( tuu- , too- , taa- , tee- ). With nouns longer than one syllable and with nouns that begin with /h/ or /ʔ/ , reduced forms of

1496-419: The genitive. Examples: Adjectives follow the nominal heads of noun phrases. They agree in gender, number, case, and definiteness, and carry case and definiteness markers of the same form as nouns. Clauses may be composed of two noun phrases or a noun phrase and a predicative adjective followed by a copular clitic. The copula agrees in person, gender, and number with the copula complement (the second term), but

1540-427: The non-reduced present/imperfective). Vanhove describes the potential as expressing "epistemic modalities of inference or near-certainty." Examples below, with the potential verbs in bold: Voiced alveolar fricative The voiced alveolar fricatives are consonantal sounds. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents these sounds depends on whether a sibilant or non-sibilant fricative

1584-426: The past continuous as being used for "habitual, repeated actions of the (more distant) past." It is the verb conjugation used for counterfactual conditionals, which leads to Roper's identifying this tense as the "conditional". It is also frequently used in narratives. The past or perfective stem for strong verbs is identical to the citation form (imperative) stem, with predictable phonetic modifications. The negative

1628-421: The past continuous/aorist (for him, "conditional"—see above), just as Vanhove does. However, he understands the form with n- as being used only with the first person plural, as Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa do. In addition to the future, Bidhaawyeet has a similar form expressing desire to undertake an act or intention to do so. The citation root takes a suffix -a for all persons, genders, and numbers, and

1672-422: The past continuous/aorist first person singular and plural, respectively. Similarly, for weak verbs, Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa have a future stem ending in -i with a first person plural -ni , followed by a present tense/imperfective conjugation of diya . Vanhove sees the -i as a singular future, and the -ni as a general plural. For negative verbs, the negative present/imperfective of diya

1716-453: The possessing noun. If the possessing noun is feminine, the genitive marker will begin with t ; if the possessed is feminine, the suffix will end with t . When the suffix does not end with the feminine marker t , it reduces to -(t)i , whether singular or plural (that is, the singular/plural distinction is only marked for feminine possessa). Because this suffix adds a syllable to the noun, full forms of articles cannot be used; thus,

1760-652: The text as a translation of Psalm 30 . Nasals other than /m/ and /n/ are positional variants of /n/ . The consonants /χ/ and /ɣ/ only appear in Arabic loanwords in some speakers' speech; in others', they are replaced by /k/ or /h/ and /g/ . Some speakers replace /z/ in Arabic loanwords with /d/ . Beja has the five vowels /a/ , /e/ , /i/ , /o/ , and /u/ . /e/ and /o/ only appear long, while /a/ , /i/ , and /u/ have long and short variants. Beja has pitch accent . Both Roman and Arabic script have been used to write Beja. The Roman orthography below

1804-429: The verb. However, these are not consistent. A further derived form is a suffix -aa attached to the citation root, and then followed by -b for masculine nouns and -t for feminine. Examples: This form may be used as an adjective, but it is also employed in the construction of multiple conjugated negative forms. Wedekind, Wedekind, and Musa analyse this form as a participle. Martine Vanhove analyses it as

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1848-464: Was done on Egyptian tribes in the late 1800s and a number of skulls of people of the Hadendoa tribe were taken to the Royal College of Surgeons to be measured and studied. The Hadendoa were traditionally a pastoral people, ruled by a hereditary chief, called a Ma'ahes. One of the best-known chiefs was a Mahdist general named Osman Digna . He led them in the battles, from 1883 to 1898, against

1892-669: Was employed briefly at Red Sea University in 2019. No system of writing has gained wide support. The only system to have been employed in publications by more than one writer is the Latin script. In the Roman orthography, the vowels are written with the letters corresponding to the IPA symbols (i.e., ⟨a, e, i, o, u⟩ ). Long vowels are written with doubled signs. As /e/ and /o/ cannot be short vowels, they only appear as ⟨ee⟩ and ⟨oo⟩ , respectively. The single ⟨e⟩ sign, however, does have

1936-455: Was generally rejected by other linguists, and Cerulli's identification of Beja as the sole member of a North Cushitic branch remains standard today across otherwise divergent proposals for the internal relations of the Cushitic language family. Christopher Ehret proposes the following sequence of sound changes between Proto-Cushitic and Beja: Ehret's reconstructed Proto-Cushitic /z/ is not

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