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67-527: Since 10 January 2023, every seat in each house is vacant as elections have been repeatedly delayed and the final elected legislators' terms expired on January 10. The National Assembly was preceded by the Council of State , a legislative council appointed by the head of state, mostly from among generals. The Council of State was first formed by Jean-Jacques Dessalines under his 1804 imperial constitution. Following his 1806 assassination, his northern general and

134-467: A plantation near Grande-Riviere-du-Nord , Saint-Domingue. His enslaved father had adopted the surname from his owner Henri Duclos. The names of Jean-Jacques's parents, as well as their region of origin in Africa , are not known. Most slaves trafficked to Saint-Domingue were from west and central West Africa. He later took the surname Dessalines, after a free man of color who had purchased him. Working in

201-404: A special session or other extraordinary meeting, for a specific purpose. Most often it refers to when both houses of a bicameral legislature sit together. A joint session typically occurs to receive foreign or domestic diplomats or leaders , or to allow both houses to consider bills together. Some constitutions give special power to a joint session, voting by majority of all members of

268-489: A Constituent Assembly, which drafted a new constitution and restored much of parliament's former power to the Parliament against the new president Charles Rivière-Hérard . But under his successor, Philippe Guerrier , the Parliament was temporarily replaced by a smaller appointed Council of State which held legislative power for the next two years until it was turned into a Senate in 1846 under Jean-Baptiste Riché . Under

335-561: A job. Dessalines was married to Marie-Claire Heureuse Félicité Bonheur from the city of Léogane . The wedding celebration took place in St-Marc Church and Toussaint Louverture was the witness. Marie-Claire was empress under the 1805 Constitution, and she has been credited with the concoction of the soup lendepandans or Pumpkin Independence Soup, now a UNESCO Patrimoine. She was older than her husband and died when she

402-586: A lieutenant in Papillon's army and followed him to Santo Domingo , occupying the eastern half of the island, where he enlisted to serve Spain's military forces against the French colony of Saint-Domingue. In that period, Dessalines met the rising military commander Toussaint Bréda (later known as Toussaint Louverture ), a mature man also born into slavery. He was fighting with Spanish forces on Hispaniola . These men wanted above all to defeat slavery. In 1794, after

469-505: A local rebel leader to lay down his arms per the recent ceasefire agreement, he immediately wrote Leclerc to denounce Louverture's conduct as 'extraordinary'." For this action, Dessalines and his spouse received gifts from Jean Baptiste Brunet . Louverture and a hundred members of his inner circle were arrested by Brunett on 7 June 1802, and deported to France. Louverture was imprisoned at Fort-de-Joux in Doubs, where he died on 7 April 1803, at

536-730: A parking of several levels with a capacity of 240 vehicles. ^ [A___] citations are Article numbers of the 1987 Constitution of the Republic of Haiti . A government-issued but unofficial (and error-prone) English translation is available at http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b542c.html and http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Haiti/haiti1987.html and the French original is available at http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Haiti/haiti1987fr.html Jean-Jacques Dessalines Jean-Jacques Dessalines ( Haitian Creole : Jan-Jak Desalin ; French pronunciation: [ʒɑ̃ ʒak dɛsalin] ; 20 September 1758 – 17 October 1806)

603-469: A sabre's blow and he was finally stabbed three times with a dagger, with the crowd shouting "the tyrant is killed". The mob desecrated and disfigured Dessalines' remains, which were abandoned on Government Square. There was resistance to providing him with a proper burial, but Défilée ( Dédée Bazile ), a black woman from a humble background, took the mutilated body of the Emperor and buried it. A monument at

670-517: A winning margin over the whole of Australia of up to 36–0. That would have given the party or grouping enjoying such a large Senate majority an advantage in any joint sitting, had there been one. The voting system now used for the Senate, quota-preferential proportional representation , almost inevitably leads to very evenly divided results. Six senators are elected from each state and two from each territory. A party or grouping has to get at least 57% of

737-474: Is traditionally made before a "joint session" of the United States Congress . Many states refer to an analogous event as a "joint convention". Such assemblies are typically held in the chamber of the lower house as the larger body. State constitutions of U.S. states may require joint conventions for other purposes; for example Tennessee 's requires such to elect the secretary of state ,

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804-459: The 1804 Haitian massacre of the remaining French population in Haiti, resulting in the deaths of between 3,000 and 5,000 people, including women and children, and an exodus of thousands of refugees. Some modern historians classify the massacre as a genocide due to its systemic nature. Notably, he excluded surviving Polish Legionnaires , who had defected from the French legion to become allied with

871-565: The French army when Saint-Domingue was fending off Spanish and British incursions. Later he rose to become a commander in the revolt against France. As Toussaint Louverture 's principal lieutenant, he led many successful engagements, including the Battle of Crête-à-Pierrot . In 1802, Louverture was betrayed and captured, and sent to prison in France, where he died. Thereafter, Dessalines became

938-767: The King into office, as stipulated by article 91 of the Constitution. The Canadian government procedure is called a joint address , with the members of the House of Commons attending the Senate as guests. There is no procedure in Canada for both chambers of the Parliament to sit in a true joint session. Various government agencies and non-governmental organizations may also meet jointly to handle problems which each of

1005-603: The President of Germany . It includes members from the Bundestag and representatives of the States of Germany . In India , if an ordinary bill has been rejected by any house of the parliament and if more than six months have elapsed, the President may summon a joint session for purpose of passing the bill. The bill is passed by a simple majority of a joint sitting. Since the lower house ( Lok Sabha ) has more than twice

1072-848: The Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002 . In the Irish Free State , the predecessor of the Republic of Ireland , the Governor-General's Address to both houses was made to the lower house , with Senators invited to attend. In the Philippines , Congress can convene in a joint session for the following: While the State of the Nation Address takes place annually, and presidential elections occur every six years,

1139-411: The Senate elections of 2009 LESPWA won five seats, and five parties won one seat each (OPL, AAA, FUSION, KONBA, UCADDE), as well as an independent. The Chamber of Deputies has 119 members who are elected by popular vote to four-year terms. Candidates from Aristide's Fanmi Lavalas party took seventy-three of the then eighty-three seats in the 2000 elections. Following the coup d'état and the overthrow of

1206-491: The elections of 2000 , twenty-six of the then twenty-seven seats were held by Jean-Bertrand Aristide 's Fanmi Lavalas party. The Senate was not in session following the overthrow of Aristide's government in February 2004 . An interim government was put in place following the rebellion, and the remaining Senators were not recognised during that time. The Senate was re-established and elections were held on 21 April 2006. In

1273-490: The sugarcane fields as a laborer, Dessalines rose to the rank of commandeur , or foreman. He worked on Duclos's plantation until he was about 30 years old. Still enslaved, Jean-Jacques was bought by a man with the last name of Dessalines, an affranchi or free man of color , who assigned his own surname to Jean-Jacques. From then on he was called Jean-Jacques Dessalines. Dessalines kept this name after he gained his freedom. He worked for that master for about three years. When

1340-465: The 1964 and 1971 Duvalier constitutions, the body became a unicameral Legislature with the abolition of the Senate. The Senate was subsequently restored in 1988. The Senate consists of thirty seats, with three members from each of the ten administrative departments . Prior to the creation of the department of Nippes in 2003, there were twenty-seven seats. Senators are elected by popular vote to six-year terms, with one-third elected every two years. After

1407-680: The 2 Chambers and the National Assembly, the Library of Parliament, the press rooms and several meeting rooms for the Parliamentary Committees and will have a parking for 94 vehicles. The second building, a tower of 9 levels, is going to be equipped with 4 main elevators, a freight elevator and emergency staircase, and will host the individual offices of senators and deputies, including their secretariats, waiting rooms, meeting rooms, space for clerks, toilets, kitchens and

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1474-538: The Declaration of Independence in 1804, and declared himself emperor. On 1 January 1804, from the city of Gonaïves , Dessalines officially declared the former colony's independence and renamed it " Ayiti " after the indigenous Taíno name. He had served as Governor-General of Saint-Domingue since 30 November 1803. After the declaration of independence, Dessalines named himself Governor-General-for-life of Haiti and served in that role until 22 September 1804, when he

1541-655: The French declared an end to slavery as a result of the French Revolution, Toussaint Louverture switched allegiances to the French. He fought for the French Republic against both the Spanish and British, who were trying to get control of the lucrative colony of Saint-Domingue. Dessalines followed, becoming a chief lieutenant to Toussaint Louverture and rising to the rank of brigadier general by 1799. Dessalines commanded many successful engagements, including

1608-419: The French troops under his command. The brutal tactics of Leclerc's successor, Rochambeau , helped to unify rebel forces against the French. The rebels achieved a series of victories, culminating in the last major battle of the revolution, the Battle of Vertières . On 18 November 1803, black and mulatto forces under Dessalines and Pétion attacked the fort of Vertières, held by Rochambeau, near Cap-Français in

1675-588: The Haitian Revolution. After the expulsion of French forces during the last phase of the Haitian Revolution, Dessalines ordered all remaining Europeans (overwhelmingly French people ) in the new Republic of Haiti to be killed, men, women and children, including those who had been friendly and sympathetic to the black population. Many free people of color were also killed. Yet, after declaring himself Governor-for-Life in 1804, Jean-Jacques Dessalines took his old master Dessalines into his house and gave him

1742-609: The President of the Senate, with the President of the Chamber of Deputies assisting. The Secretaries of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies also serve as Secretaries of the National Assembly. The National Assembly building was built in 1949 for the Exposition internationale du bicentenaire de Port-au-Prince and was destroyed during the earthquake on 12 January 2010 . The Legislative Palace ( French : Palais Législatif )

1809-592: The South of Saint-Domingue, an area where wealthy gens de couleur were concentrated in plantations. Toussaint Louverture's forces had defeated them three years earlier. After the Battle of Crête-à-Pierrot , Dessalines defected from his long-time ally Louverture and briefly sided with Leclerc, Pétion, and Rigaud. Several historians attribute Dessalines with being at least partially responsible for Louverture's arrest, as did Louverture's son Isaac. On 22 May 1802, after Dessalines "learned that Louverture had failed to instruct

1876-491: The age of 59. When it became apparent that the French intended to re-establish slavery on Saint-Domingue, as they had on Guadeloupe , Dessalines and Pétion switched sides again in October 1802, to oppose the French. By November 1802, Dessalines had become the leader of the alliance with the blessing of Pétion, the most prominent of the affranchis , or free men of color. Leclerc died of yellow fever , which also killed many of

1943-498: The architect of the 1804 massacre of the remaining French residents of newly independent Haiti, including some supporters of the revolution. Alongside Toussaint Louverture , he has been referred to as one of the fathers of the nation of Haiti. Dessalines was directly responsible for the country, and, under his rule, Haiti became the first country in the Americas to permanently abolish slavery. Dessalines served as an officer in

2010-468: The captures of Jacmel , Petit-Goâve , Miragoâne and Anse-à-Veau . In 1801, Dessalines quickly ended an insurrection in the north led by Louverture's nephew, General Moyse. Dessalines gained a reputation for his " take no prisoners " policy, and for burning homes and entire villages to the ground. The rebellious slaves were able to restore most of Saint-Domingue to France, with Louverture in control. The French initially appointed him as governor-general of

2077-681: The colonialists. Many white colonialists planters and merchants, in addition to free people of color, had already fled the island as refugees, going to Cuba, the United States, and France. Between February and April 1804, Dessalines ordered a massacre of the remaining colonists in Haiti, an event that came to be called the 1804 Haiti massacre . In the Haitian Constitution of 1805, Dessalines declared Haiti to be an all-black nation and forbade white colonists from owning property or land there. Property that belonged to white colonists

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2144-495: The colony. Louverture wanted Saint-Domingue to have more autonomy. He directed the creation of a new constitution to establish that, as well as rules for how the colony would operate under freedom. He also named himself governor-for-life, while still swearing his loyalty to France. The French government had been through changes after the Revolution and was by then led by Napoleon Bonaparte . His wife, Josephine de Beauharnais ,

2211-612: The constitution in 1816, which established a bicameral parliament, consisting of the House of Representatives of the Communes and the Senate , as well as a separate judicial branch headed by the Tribunal of Cassation. The new parliament also elected Petion president for life, and allowed him to govern more or less by decree. This era, which continued under Petion's successor Jean-Pierre Boyer , ended in 1843, when Boyer resigned and went into exile. A new provisional government assembled

2278-550: The eastern part of the island, reaching Santo Domingo before retreating in the face of a French naval squadron. In declaring Haiti an independent country, Dessalines also confirmed the abolition of slavery in the new country. Haiti became the first country in the Americas to permanently abolish slavery. Dessalines tried to keep the sugar industry and plantations running and producing without slavery. After having served enslaved under colonialists masters for 30 years, as well as having seen many atrocities, Dessalines did not trust

2345-634: The election of deputies from parishes in the Western and Southern departments, counteracting Christophe. This resulted in a constitution which was more favorable to Petion's demands for a republican form of government. Under Petion's guidance, the constitution was approved, and the Assembly elected Christophe president and elected a powerful unicameral 24-member Senate. Christophe and Petion came to violent blows, with Christophe eventually retreating to Cap Francais (now Cap-Haitien ) and forming an "Assembly of

2412-477: The enslaved Africans, as well as the Germans who did not take part in the slave trade. He granted them full citizenship under the constitution and classified them as black , along with all other Haitian citizens. Tensions remained with the minority of mixed-race or free people of color , who had gained some education and property during the colonial period. Jean-Jacques Duclos was born into slavery on Cormier,

2479-711: The fort up should the French break through. The defenders inflicted extensive casualties on the attacking army, but after a 20-day siege, they were forced to abandon the fort due to a shortage of food and munitions. The rebels forced their way through the enemy lines and into the Cahos Mountains, with their army still largely intact. The French soldiers under Leclerc were accompanied by mulatto troops led by Alexandre Pétion and André Rigaud , free gens de couleur from Saint-Domingue. Pétion and Rigaud, both sons of wealthy white fathers, had opposed Louverture's leadership. They had tried to establish separate independence in

2546-403: The government in February 2004, the Chamber of Deputies remained empty. It was re-established along with the Senate, and elections were held on 21 April 2006. The National Assembly ( French : Assemblée Nationale ) is a joint session of Parliament. The National Assembly is convened for specific purposes laid out in the Constitution. Meetings of the National Assembly are presided over by

2613-577: The involved parties has a stake in. The Congress of France is an assembly of both houses of the French Parliament , convened at the Palace of Versailles , which can approve certain amendments to the constitution by a three-fifths majority of all members. Since 2008, the Congress may also be convened to hear an address from the President of the Republic . The Federal Convention elects

2680-463: The island, an army and ships led by General Charles Leclerc . Louverture and Dessalines fought against the invading French forces, with Dessalines fighting them at the battle for which he is most famous, Crête-à-Pierrot . During the 11 March 1802 battle, Dessalines and his 1,300 men defended a small fort against 18,000 attackers. To inspire his troops at the start of the battle, he waved a lit torch near an open powder keg and declared that he would blow

2747-412: The leader of the revolution and Général-Chef de l' Armée Indigène on 18 May 1803. His forces defeated the French army at the Battle of Vertières on 18 November 1803. Saint-Domingue was declared independent on 29 November and then as the independent Republic of Haiti on 1 January 1804, under the leadership of Dessalines, chosen by a council of generals to assume the office of governor-general. He ordered

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2814-600: The legislature regardless of which house or chamber they belong to. For example, in Switzerland a joint session of the two houses elects the members of the Federal Council (cabinet). In India , disputes between houses are resolved by a joint sitting but without an intervening election. In the Australian federal parliament , a joint sitting can be held, under certain conditions, to overcome a deadlock between

2881-409: The light-skinned elite, as gens de couleur were most likely to have been educated. Disaffected members of Dessalines's administration, including Alexandre Pétion and Henri Christophe , began a conspiracy to overthrow the Emperor. Dessalines was assassinated north of the capital city, Port-au-Prince , at Larnage (now known as Pont-Rouge), on 17 October 1806, on his way to fight the rebels. His body

2948-468: The mandatories of the people" which elected him President and adopted his own constitution in February 1807. The Senate, meanwhile, met in Port-au-Prince, and formally replaced Christophe with then-Senator Petion as president. This resulted in two separately-governed countries. Petion eventually tired of the 1806 constitution's limitations on his power, and he eventually drafted a major revision to

3015-655: The members of the upper house ( Rajya Sabha ), a group commanding a majority in the lower house of the Government of India can often pass such a bill even if it was previously rejected by the upper house. So far, joint Session of the Parliament of India has been called for only three bills that have been passed at joint sessions: the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 , the Banking Service Commission Repeal Bill, 1978, and

3082-478: The most prominent mulatto figure, but Pétion refused under the pretext that she was in a relationship with Chancy, one of Toussaint's nephews. Euphémie Daguile, one of his best known concubines , was the choreographer of the Karabiyen dance known also as Jacques' favorite dance. It is still danced by Haitian families all over the country. Dessalines had two brothers, Louis and Joseph Duclos, who also later took

3149-555: The nation. His forces were strict in enforcing this, to the extent that some blacks felt as if they were again enslaved. Dessalines also believed in the tight regulation of foreign trade, which was essential for Haiti's sugar and coffee -based export economy. Like Toussaint Louverture, Dessalines encouraged merchants from Britain and the United States over those from France. For his administration, Dessalines needed literate and educated officials and managers. He placed in these positions well-educated Haitians, who were disproportionately from

3216-608: The new Chief of the Provisional Government Henri Christophe called a Constituent Assembly to meet in Port-au-Prince in November. However, a power struggle ensued between supporters of Christophe and his fellow general Alexandre Petion . Christophe had sought to ensure a majority of parishes from his power base in the Northern and Artibonite departments in the Assembly, but Petion authorized

3283-468: The north. Rochambeau and his troops surrendered the next day. On 4 December 1803, the French colonial army of Napoleon Bonaparte surrendered its last remaining territory to Dessalines's forces. This officially ended the only slave rebellion in world history which successfully established an independent nation. In the process, Dessalines became arguably the most successful military commander in Haiti's struggle against Napoleonic France. Dessalines promulgated

3350-575: The northern entrance of the Haitian capital marks the place where the Emperor was killed. This assassination did not solve the tensions within the Haitian government. His murder left a power vacuum and civil war ensued. Pétion and Christophe temporarily partitioned Haiti between them, with Pétion controlling the South, where there were more gens de couleur libre. Joint session A joint session or joint convention is, most broadly, when two normally separate decision -making groups meet, often in

3417-584: The only instances when the other two conditions were met post the approval of the 1987 constitution were following the declaration of martial law in Maguindanao after the Maguindanao massacre in 2009, and in Mindanao after the Marawi crisis in 2017 and 2018. Special joint sessions can also be convened to facilitate visiting foreign leaders' addresses to Congress. Joint sessions are typically held at

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3484-620: The seat of the House of Representatives, which is at the Batasang Pambansa Complex , Quezon City . English and later British monarchs have jointly addressed the House of Commons and the House of Lords since the 16th century. Since 1939, foreign heads of state and dignitaries have been invited to address both houses of Parliament, the first to do so was French President Albert Lebrun in March 1939. The speech from

3551-552: The slave uprising of 1791 began, it spread across the Plaine-du-Nord . This was an area of very large sugar cane plantations, where the mass of enslaved Africans lived and worked. Mortality was so high that French colonial planters continued to buy more enslaved people from Africa during the eighteenth century. Dessalines received his early military training from a woman whose name was either Victoria Montou or Akbaraya Tòya. Dessalines became increasingly embittered toward both

3618-410: The surname Dessalines. Two of his brothers' sons became high-ranking members of the post-Revolutionary Haitian government. In 1791, along with thousands of other enslaved persons, Jean-Jacques Dessalines joined the slave rebellion of the northern plains led by Jean François Papillon and Georges Biassou . This rebellion was the first action of what would become the Haitian Revolution. Dessalines became

3685-531: The throne upon the State Opening of Parliament is made before a joint sitting of both Houses. This occurs in the House of Lords, the upper chamber, due to the constitutional convention that the monarch never enters the House of Commons. The closing of each of parliamentary session is also marked by a speech to both Houses. The State of the Union Address of the president of the United States

3752-728: The total number of members and senators in order to pass. The only example of this occurring was the Joint Sitting of the Australian Parliament of 1974 under the Whitlam Labor government, at which six deadlocked bills were passed. Because the House has twice as many members as the Senate, the former has an advantage in a joint sitting. However, the voting system used for the Senate before 1949, which might be called "multiple at-large voting", often led to landslide if not wipe-out results in each state, resulting in

3819-406: The two houses. For a deadlock to be declared, a bill has to be rejected twice by the Senate at an interval of at least three months, after which a double dissolution election can be held. If, following the election, the new parliament is still unable to pass the bill, it may be considered by a joint sitting of the House of Representatives and the Senate , and must achieve an absolute majority of

3886-529: The vote in any State to obtain a four-two majority of seats in that state, whereas from 51% to 56% of the vote yields only an equality of three seats to each major party or group. The Federal Assembly is a formal joint session of the two houses of the bicameral Austrian Parliament , to swear the elected President of Austria into office. The Chamber of Representatives and the Senate convene as United Chambers ( Dutch : Verenigde Kamers ; French : Chambres réunies ; German : Vereinigten Kammern ) to swear

3953-554: The whites and gens de couleur libres (the mixed-race residents of Saint-Domingue) in the years of conflict during the revolution. Haitian insurgents fought against French colonists and foreign troops in Saint-Domingue. During the years of warfare and changing rule, these included French, British, and Spanish forces. All three European nations had colonies in the Caribbean , where their control and revenues were threatened by

4020-453: Was 100 years old. She was referred to as the adopted wife of the Nation in a letter by Pétion after the Emperor's assassination. The couple had or adopted a total number of 16 children including Jacques' from the previous relationship. Innocent, one of his sons, has a fort named in his honor. Dessalines offered one of his daughters to Pétion in an attempt to relieve racial tensions, as Pétion was

4087-526: Was among the many structures which were virtually destroyed by the earthquake on 12 January 2010. Parliament resumed sitting shortly after the earthquake in a temporary classroom. On 22 November 2011, the government opened new temporary facilities for the Parliament, built with the help of the USAID program. On 27 December 2012 the first stone of the new Legislative Palace was laid. The main building, horizontal, of 4 levels, will include 3 large sitting rooms for

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4154-454: Was declared to be "by incontestable right confiscated to the benefit of the state." Dessalines enforced a harsh regimen of plantation labor, described by the historian Michel-Rolph Trouillot as caporalisme agraire (agrarian militarism). As had Toussaint Louverture, Dessalines demanded that all blacks work either as soldiers to defend the nation or as laborers on the plantations, in order to raise commodity crops for export and to help sustain

4221-739: Was dismembered and mutilated. His body was picked up by Marie-Sainte Dédé Bazile and buried in the Cimetière intérieur of Church Ste-Anne and a tomb was raised by Étienne Gérin's wife with the inscription: Ci-git Dessalines, mort à 48 ans (Here lies Dessalines, died at 48 years old). His body was later moved to the Autel de la Patrie (Altar of the Nation) in the Champs-de-Mars alongside Alexandre Pétion's body. The exact circumstances of Dessalines' death are uncertain. Some historians claim that he

4288-486: Was from a slave-owning family. But many white and mulatto planters had been lobbying the government to reimpose slavery in Saint-Domingue. Napoleon was committed to restoring slavery in Saint-Domingue in an effort to restore the basis of the labor to cultivate and process the great sugar crops. Saint-Domingue generated the highest profits of any of the French colonies prior to the Revolution in 1791. The French dispatched an expeditionary force in 1802 to restore French rule to

4355-415: Was killed at Pétion's house at Rue l'Enterrement, after a meeting to negotiate the power and the future of the young nation. Some reports say that he was arrested and was dealt a deadly blow to the head. Another report says he was ambushed and killed at first fire. Yet another account recalls a brutal attack on Dessalines by his men. It says he was shot at twice and hit once. Then his head was split open by

4422-506: Was proclaimed Emperor of Haiti by the generals of the Haitian Revolutionary army. He was crowned Emperor Jacques I in a coronation ceremony on 6 October in the city of Le Cap (now Cap-Haïtien ). On 20 May 1805, his government released the imperial constitution, naming Jean-Jacques Dessalines emperor for life with the right to name his successor. In 1805, after crowning himself Emperor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines invaded in

4489-527: Was the first Haitian Emperor , leader of the Haitian Revolution , and the first ruler of an independent Haiti under the 1805 constitution . Initially regarded as governor-general, Dessalines was later named Emperor of Haiti as Jacques I (1804–1806) by generals of the Haitian Revolutionary army and ruled in that capacity until being assassinated in 1806. He spearheaded the resistance against French rule of Saint-Domingue , and eventually became

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