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131-471: Hamsters are rodents (order Rodentia) belonging to the subfamily Cricetinae , which contains 19 species classified in seven genera . They have become established as popular small pets . The best-known species of hamster is the golden or Syrian hamster ( Mesocricetus auratus ), which is the type most commonly kept as a pet. Other hamster species commonly kept as pets are the three species of dwarf hamster, Campbell's dwarf hamster ( Phodopus campbelli ),
262-433: A loan word , loan-word ) is a word at least partly assimilated from one language (the donor language) into another language (the recipient or target language), through the process of borrowing . Borrowing is a metaphorical term that is well established in the linguistic field despite its acknowledged descriptive flaws: nothing is taken away from the donor language and there is no expectation of returning anything (i.e.,
393-414: A burrow and one male defending a territory around the burrow. At high population densities, this system breaks down and males show a hierarchical system of dominance with overlapping ranges. Female offspring remain in the colony while male young disperse. The prairie vole is monogamous and forms a lifelong pair bond. Outside the breeding season, prairie voles live with others in small colonies. A male
524-491: A colony of their own. Rodents use scent marking in many social contexts including inter- and intra-species communication, the marking of trails and the establishment of territories. Their urine provides genetic information about individuals including the species, the sex and individual identity, and metabolic information on dominance, reproductive status and health. Compounds derived from the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are bound to several urinary proteins. The odor of
655-406: A distinct "chirping", has been likened to laughter , and is interpreted as an expectation of something rewarding. In clinical studies, the chirping is associated with positive emotional feelings, and social bonding occurs with the tickler, resulting in the rats becoming conditioned to seek the tickling. However, as the rats age, the tendency to chirp declines. Like most rat vocalizations, the chirping
786-463: A female. If breeding hamsters, separation of the pair after mating is recommended, or they will attack each other. Female hamsters are also particularly sensitive to disturbances while giving birth, and may even eat their own young if they think they are in danger, although sometimes they are just carrying the pups in their cheek pouches. If captive female hamsters are left for extended periods (three weeks or more) with their litter, they may cannibalize
917-485: A few are predators. The field vole is a typical herbivorous rodent and feeds on grasses, herbs, root tubers, moss, and other vegetation, and gnaws on bark during the winter. It occasionally eats invertebrates such as insect larvae. The plains pocket gopher eats plant material found underground during tunneling, and also collects grasses, roots, and tubers in its cheek pouches and caches them in underground larder chambers. The Texas pocket gopher avoids emerging onto
1048-588: A few have become specialized to rely on a diet of animal matter. A functional-morphological study of the rodent tooth system supports the idea that primitive rodents were omnivores rather than herbivores. Studies of the literature show that numerous members of the Sciuromorpha and Myomorpha, and a few members of the Hystricomorpha, have either included animal matter in their diets or been prepared to eat such food when offered it in captivity. Examination of
1179-495: A good sense of distance or knowing where they are, but that does not stop them from climbing in (and sometimes out of) their cages or from being adventurous. Hamsters can sense movement around at all times, which helps protect them from harm in the wild. In a household, this sense helps them know when their owner is near. Hamsters have scent glands on their flanks (and abdomens in Chinese and dwarf hamsters) which they rub against
1310-444: A high-fiber diet; their molars have no roots and grow continuously like their incisors. In many species, the molars are relatively large, intricately structured, and highly cusped or ridged. Rodent molars are well equipped to grind food into small particles. The jaw musculature is strong. The lower jaw is thrust forward while gnawing and is pulled backwards during chewing. Gnawing uses incisors and chewing uses molars, however, due to
1441-402: A lesser extent, Romance languages borrowed from a variety of other languages; in particular English has become an important source in more recent times. The study of the origin of these words and their function and context within the language can illuminate some important aspects and characteristics of the language, and it can reveal insights on the phenomenon of lexical borrowing in linguistics as
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#17327944636041572-539: A means of intra-specific communication during courtship among the Cape mole rat . Footdrumming has been reported to be involved in male-male competition; the dominant male indicates its resource holding potential by drumming, thus minimizing physical contact with potential rivals. Some species of rodent are monogamous, with an adult male and female forming a lasting pair bond . Monogamy can come in two forms; obligate and facultative. In obligate monogamy, both parents care for
1703-524: A method of enriching a language. According to Hans Henrich Hock and Brian Joseph, "languages and dialects ... do not exist in a vacuum": there is always linguistic contact between groups. The contact influences what loanwords are integrated into the lexicon and which certain words are chosen over others. In some cases, the original meaning shifts considerably through unexpected logical leaps, creating false friends . The English word Viking became Japanese バイキング ( baikingu ), meaning "buffet", because
1834-581: A mix, depending on the species. Two species of hamster belonging to the genus Phodopus , Campbell's dwarf hamster ( P. campbelli ) and the Djungarian hamster ( P. sungorus ), and two of the genus Cricetulus , the Chinese striped hamster ( C. barabensis ) and the Chinese hamster ( C. griseus ) have a dark stripe down their heads to their tails. The species of genus Phodopus are the smallest, with bodies 5.5 to 10.5 cm (2.2 to 4.1 in) long;
1965-686: A part in social communication between dormice and are used when the individuals are out of sight of each other. House mice use both audible and ultrasonic calls in a variety of contexts. Audible vocalizations can often be heard during agonistic or aggressive encounters, whereas ultrasound is used in sexual communication and also by pups when they have fallen out of the nest. Laboratory rats (which are brown rats, Rattus norvegicus ) emit short, high frequency, ultrasonic vocalizations during purportedly pleasurable experiences such as rough-and-tumble play, when anticipating routine doses of morphine , during mating, and when tickled. The vocalization, described as
2096-423: A political tinge: right-wing publications tend to use more Arabic-originated words, left-wing publications use more words adopted from Indo-European languages such as Persian and French, while centrist publications use more native Turkish root words. Almost 350 years of Dutch presence in what is now Indonesia have left significant linguistic traces. Though very few Indonesians have a fluent knowledge of Dutch,
2227-458: A predator depresses scent-marking behavior. Rodents are able to recognize close relatives by smell and this allows them to show nepotism (preferential behavior toward their kin) and also avoid inbreeding. This kin recognition is by olfactory cues from urine, feces and glandular secretions. The main assessment may involve the MHC, where the degree of relatedness of two individuals is correlated to
2358-499: A predator warning or defensive action. It is used primarily by fossorial or semi-fossorial rodents. The banner-tailed kangaroo rat produces several complex footdrumming patterns in a number of different contexts, one of which is when it encounters a snake. The footdrumming may alert nearby offspring but most likely conveys that the rat is too alert for a successful attack, thus preventing the snake's predatory pursuit. Several studies have indicated intentional use of ground vibrations as
2489-403: A review of Gneuss's (1955) book on Old English loan coinages, whose classification, in turn, is the one by Betz (1949) again. Weinreich (1953: 47ff.) differentiates between two mechanisms of lexical interference, namely those initiated by simple words and those initiated by compound words and phrases. Weinreich (1953: 47) defines simple words "from the point of view of the bilinguals who perform
2620-535: A separation mainly on spelling is (or, in fact, was) not common except amongst German linguists, and only when talking about German and sometimes other languages that tend to adapt foreign spellings, which is rare in English unless the word has been widely used for a long time. According to the linguist Suzanne Kemmer, the expression "foreign word" can be defined as follows in English: "[W]hen most speakers do not know
2751-462: A short tail and fur-covered feet. Taxonomists generally disagree about the most appropriate placement of the subfamily Cricetinae within the superfamily Muroidea . Some place it in a family Cricetidae that also includes voles , lemmings , and New World rats and mice ; others group all these into a large family called Muridae . Their evolutionary history is recorded by 15 extinct fossil genera and extends back 11.2 million to 16.4 million years to
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#17327944636042882-470: A similar basal position. The genus Mesocricetus also forms a clade . Their analysis included all four species, with M. auratus and M. raddei forming one subclade and M. brandti and M. newtoni another. The remaining genera of hamsters formed a third major clade. Two of the three sampled species within Cricetulus represent the earliest split. This clade contains C. barabensis (and presumably
3013-651: A single brother–sister pairing. These littermates were captured and imported in 1930 from Aleppo in Syria by Israel Aharoni , a zoologist of the University of Jerusalem . In Jerusalem, the hamsters bred very successfully. Years later, animals of this original breeding colony were exported to the United States, where Syrian hamsters became a common pet and laboratory animal. Comparative studies of domestic and wild Syrian hamsters have shown reduced genetic variability in
3144-403: A single female monopolizes mating from at least three males. In most rodent species, such as brown rats and house mice, ovulation occurs on a regular cycle while in others, such as voles, it is induced by mating . During copulation, males of some rodent species deposit a mating plug in the female's genital opening, both to prevent sperm leakage and to protect against other males inseminating
3275-678: A single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws . About 40% of all mammal species are rodents. They are native to all major land masses except for Antarctica , and several oceanic islands, though they have subsequently been introduced to most of these land masses by human activity. Rodents are extremely diverse in their ecology and lifestyles and can be found in almost every terrestrial habitat, including human-made environments. Species can be arboreal , fossorial (burrowing), saltatorial /ricochetal (leaping on their hind legs), or semiaquatic. However, all rodents share several morphological features, including having only
3406-412: A single upper and lower pair of ever-growing incisors. Well-known rodents include mice , rats , squirrels , prairie dogs , porcupines , beavers , guinea pigs , and hamsters . However, rabbits , hares , and pikas , which also have incisors that grow continuously (but have two pairs of upper incisors instead of one), were once included with rodents, but are now considered to be in a separate order,
3537-549: A small part of its diet is plant material. It has a chunky body with short legs and tail, but is agile and can easily overpower prey as large as itself. Rodents exhibit a wide range of types of social behavior ranging from the mammalian caste system of the naked mole-rat , the extensive "town" of the colonial prairie dog , through family groups to the independent, solitary life of the edible dormouse . Adult dormice may have overlapping feeding ranges, but they live in individual nests and feed separately, coming together briefly in
3668-477: A specific scent using their scent glands and also show body language to express how they are feeling. Hamsters can be described as nocturnal or crepuscular (active mostly at dawn and dusk). Khunen writes, "Hamsters are nocturnal rodents who are active during the night", but others have written that because hamsters live underground during most of the day, only leaving their burrows for about an hour before sundown and then returning when it gets dark, their behavior
3799-452: A variety of ways. The studies by Werner Betz (1971, 1901), Einar Haugen (1958, also 1956), and Uriel Weinreich (1963) are regarded as the classical theoretical works on loan influence. The basic theoretical statements all take Betz's nomenclature as their starting point. Duckworth (1977) enlarges Betz's scheme by the type "partial substitution" and supplements the system with English terms. A schematic illustration of these classifications
3930-404: Is at frequencies too high for humans to hear without special equipment, so bat detectors have been used for this purpose. Rodents, like all placental mammals except primates, have just two types of light receptive cones in their retina, a short wavelength "blue-UV" type and a middle wavelength "green" type. They are therefore classified as dichromats ; however, they are visually sensitive into
4061-598: Is either a blend of the root of Russian хомяк ( khomyak ) "hamster" and a Baltic word (cf. Lithuanian : staras "hamster"); or of Persian origin (cf. Avestan : hamaēstar "oppressor"). The collective noun for a group of hamsters is "horde". In German, the verb hamstern is derived from Hamster . It means " to hoard ". Hamsters are typically stout-bodied, with tails shorter than body length, and have small, furry ears, short, stocky legs, and wide feet. They have thick, silky fur, which can be long or short, colored black, grey, honey, white, brown, yellow, red, or
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4192-641: Is evident in particular subgroups of rodents like kangaroo rats , hamsters, chipmunks and gophers which have two bags that may range from the mouth to the front of the shoulders. True mice and rats do not contain this structure but their cheeks are elastic due to a high degree of musculature and innervation in the region. While the largest species, the capybara , can weigh as much as 66 kg (146 lb), most rodents weigh less than 100 g (3.5 oz). Rodents have wide-ranging morphologies, but typically have squat bodies and short limbs. The fore limbs usually have five digits, including an opposable thumb, while
4323-522: Is from April to October in the Northern Hemisphere, with two to five litters of one to 13 young being born after a gestation period of 16 to 23 days. Dwarf hamsters breed all through the year. Gestation lasts 16 to 18 days for Syrian hamsters, 18 to 21 days for Russian hamsters, 21 to 23 days for Chinese hamsters and 23 to 30 for Roborovski hamsters. The average litter size for Syrian hamsters is about seven pups, but can be as great as 24, which
4454-480: Is given below. The phrase "foreign word" used in the image below is a mistranslation of the German Fremdwort , which refers to loanwords whose pronunciation, spelling, inflection or gender have not been adapted to the new language such that they no longer seem foreign. Such a separation of loanwords into two distinct categories is not used by linguists in English in talking about any language. Basing such
4585-482: Is good for hamsters, it is best if fruits and vegetables are also in their diet because it keeps them healthier. Even though hamsters are allowed to have both fruits and vegetables, it is important to understand exactly which ones they can have and how much. Hamsters do best with fruits that do not have citrus in them and most green leafy vegetables. Hamsters should never be fed junk food, chocolate, garlic, or any salty/sugary foods. Hamsters tend to love peanut butter but it
4716-534: Is important that they are supplied with food to make the transition from nursing to eating on their own easier. After the hamsters reach three weeks of age they are considered mature. Syrian hamsters typically live no more than two to three years in captivity, and less in the wild. Russian hamsters (Campbell's and Djungarian) live about two to four years in captivity, and Chinese hamsters 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 –3 years. The smaller Roborovski hamster often lives to three years in captivity. The best-known species of hamster
4847-548: Is important to feed it to them carefully because this sticky food can get stuck in their cheeks. Hamsters in the Middle East have been known to hunt in packs to find insects for food. Hamsters are hindgut fermenters and often eat their own feces ( coprophagy ) to recover nutrients digested in the hind-gut, but not absorbed. A behavioral characteristic of hamsters is food hoarding . They carry food in their spacious cheek pouches to their underground storage chambers. When full,
4978-430: Is indicated by a reddening of genital areas, a musky smell, and a hissing, squeaking vocalisation she will emit if she believes a male is nearby. When seen from above, a sexually mature female hamster has a trim tail line; a male's tail line bulges on both sides. This might not be very visible in all species. Male hamsters typically have very large testes in relation to their body size. Before sexual maturity occurs, it
5109-412: Is more difficult to determine a young hamster's sex. When examined, female hamsters have their anal and genital openings close together, whereas males have these two holes farther apart (the penis is usually withdrawn into the coat and thus appears as a hole or pink pimple). Syrian hamsters are seasonal breeders and will produce several litters a year with several pups in each litter. The breeding season
5240-402: Is mostly driven by the brain stem, which is itself provoked by the cortex. However Legg et al. 1989 find an alternate circuit between the cortex and whiskers through the cerebellar circuits, and Hemelt & Keller 2008 the superior colliculus. Some rodents have cheek pouches , which may be lined with fur. These can be turned inside out for cleaning. In many species, the tongue cannot reach past
5371-915: Is not aggressive towards other males until he has mated, after which time he defends a territory, a female, and a nest against other males. The pair huddles together, grooms one another, and shares nesting and pup-raising responsibilities. Among the most social of rodents are the ground squirrels, which typically form colonies based on female kinship, with males dispersing after weaning and becoming nomadic as adults. Cooperation in ground squirrels varies between species and typically includes making alarm calls, defending territories, sharing food, protecting nesting areas, and preventing infanticide. The black-tailed prairie dog forms large towns that may cover many hectares. The burrows do not interconnect, but are excavated and occupied by territorial family groups known as coteries. A coterie often consists of an adult male, three or four adult females, several nonbreeding yearlings, and
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5502-400: Is not understood why this pattern occurs, but in the case of yellow-pine chipmunks , males may have selected larger females due to their greater reproductive success. In some species, such as voles , sexual dimorphism can vary from population to population. In bank voles , females are typically larger than males, but male-bias sexual dimorphism occurs in alpine populations, possibly because of
5633-404: Is primarily crepuscular. Fritzsche indicated although some species have been observed to show more nocturnal activity than others, they are all primarily crepuscular. In the wild Syrian hamsters can hibernate and allow their body temperature to fall close to ambient temperature. This kind of thermoregulation diminishes the metabolic rate to about 5% and helps the animal to considerably reduce
5764-538: Is some question as to whether these mothers can distinguish which young are theirs. In the Patagonian mara , young are also placed in communal warrens, but mothers do not permit youngsters other than their own to nurse. Infanticide exists in numerous rodent species and may be practiced by adult conspecifics of either sex. Several reasons have been proposed for this behavior, including nutritional stress, resource competition, avoiding misdirecting parental care and, in
5895-575: Is the golden or Syrian hamster ( Mesocricetus auratus ), which is the type most commonly kept as pets . There are numerous Syrian hamster variations including long-haired varieties and different colors. British zoologist Leonard Goodwin claimed most hamsters kept in the United Kingdom were descended from the colony he introduced for medical research purposes during the Second World War. Hamsters were domesticated and kept as pets in
6026-448: Is the maximum number of pups that can be contained in the uterus. Campbell's dwarf hamsters tend to have four to eight pups in a litter, but can have up to 13. Winter white hamsters tend to have slightly smaller litters, as do Chinese and Roborovski hamsters. Female Chinese and Syrian hamsters are known for being aggressive toward males if kept together for too long after mating. In some cases, male hamsters can die after being attacked by
6157-489: Is the word tea , which originated in Hokkien but has been borrowed into languages all over the world. For a sufficiently old Wanderwort, it may become difficult or impossible to determine in what language it actually originated. Most of the technical vocabulary of classical music (such as concerto , allegro , tempo , aria , opera , and soprano ) is borrowed from Italian , and that of ballet from French . Much of
6288-421: Is their sharp incisors ; they have an upper pair and lower pair which grow continuously throughout life, so must be regularly worn down. Hamsters are very flexible, but their bones are somewhat fragile. They are extremely susceptible to rapid temperature changes and drafts, as well as extreme heat or cold. Hamsters have poor eyesight; they are nearsighted and colorblind . Their eyesight leads to them not having
6419-406: The Cape ground squirrel , the male's testes can be 20 percent of its head-body length. Several rodent species have flexible mating systems that can vary between monogamy, polygyny and promiscuity. Female rodents play an active role in choosing their mates. Factors that contribute to female preference may include the size, dominance and spatial ability of the male. In the eusocial naked mole rats,
6550-509: The English language include café (from French café , which means "coffee"), bazaar (from Persian bāzār , which means "market"), and kindergarten (from German Kindergarten , which literally means "children's garden"). The word calque is a loanword, while the word loanword is a calque: calque comes from the French noun calque ("tracing; imitation; close copy"); while
6681-605: The Great Plains of North America, the burrowing activities of prairie dogs play important roles in soil aeration and nutrient redistribution, raising the organic content of the soil and increasing the absorption of water. They maintain these grassland habitats, and some large herbivores such as bison and pronghorn prefer to graze near prairie dog colonies due to the increased nutritional quality of forage. Extirpation of prairie dogs can also contribute to regional and local biodiversity loss , increased seed depredation, and
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#17327944636046812-811: The Lagomorpha . Nonetheless, Rodentia and Lagomorpha are sister groups , sharing a single common ancestor and forming the clade of Glires . Most rodents are small animals with robust bodies, short limbs, and long tails. They use their sharp incisors to gnaw food, excavate burrows, and defend themselves. Most eat seeds or other plant material, but some have more varied diets. They tend to be social animals and many species live in societies with complex ways of communicating with each other. Mating among rodents can vary from monogamy , to polygyny , to promiscuity . Many have litters of underdeveloped, altricial young, while others are precocial (relatively well developed) at birth. The rodent fossil record dates back to
6943-585: The Paleocene on the supercontinent of Laurasia . Rodents greatly diversified in the Eocene , as they spread across continents, sometimes even crossing oceans . Rodents reached both South America and Madagascar from Africa and, until the arrival of Homo sapiens , were the only terrestrial placental mammals to reach and colonize Australia. Rodents have been used as food, for clothing, as pets , and as laboratory animals in research. Some species, in particular,
7074-408: The brown rat , the black rat , and the house mouse , are serious pests , eating and spoiling food stored by humans and spreading diseases. Accidentally introduced species of rodents are often considered to be invasive and have caused the extinction of numerous species, such as island birds, the dodo being an example, previously isolated from land-based predators. The distinguishing feature of
7205-410: The eastern grey squirrel , have a large deep masseter , making them efficient at biting with the incisors. The Myomorpha , such as the brown rat, have enlarged temporalis and masseter muscles, making them able to chew powerfully with their molars. In rodents, masseter muscles insert behind the eyes and contribute to eye boggling that occurs during gnawing where the quick contraction and relaxation of
7336-431: The terminology of the sport of fencing also comes from French. Many loanwords come from prepared food, drink, fruits, vegetables, seafood and more from languages around the world. In particular, many come from French cuisine ( crêpe , Chantilly , crème brûlée ), Italian ( pasta , linguine , pizza , espresso ), and Chinese ( dim sum , chow mein , wonton ). Loanwords are adapted from one language to another in
7467-602: The winter white dwarf hamster ( Phodopus sungorus ) and the Roborovski hamster ( Phodopus roborovskii ). Hamsters are more crepuscular than nocturnal and, in the wild, remain underground during the day to avoid being caught by predators. They feed primarily on seeds, fruits, and vegetation, and will occasionally eat burrowing insects. Physically, they are stout-bodied with distinguishing features that include elongated cheek pouches extending to their shoulders, which they use to carry food back to their burrows , as well as
7598-610: The ʻokina and macron diacritics. Most English affixes, such as un- , -ing , and -ly , were used in Old English. However, a few English affixes are borrowed. For example, the verbal suffix -ize (American English) or ise (British English) comes from Greek -ιζειν ( -izein ) through Latin -izare . Pronunciation often differs from the original language, occasionally dramatically, especially when dealing with place names . This often leads to divergence when many speakers anglicize pronunciations as other speakers try to maintain
7729-421: The 14th century had the highest number of loans. In the case of Romanian, the language underwent a "re-Latinization" process later than the others (see Romanian lexis , Romanian language § French, Italian, and English loanwords ), in the 18th and 19th centuries, partially using French and Italian words (many of these themselves being earlier borrowings from Latin) as intermediaries, in an effort to modernize
7860-526: The Indonesian language inherited many words from Dutch, both in words for everyday life (e.g., buncis from Dutch boontjes for (green) beans) and as well in administrative, scientific or technological terminology (e.g., kantor from Dutch kantoor for office). The Professor of Indonesian Literature at Leiden University , and of Comparative Literature at UCR , argues that roughly 20% of Indonesian words can be traced back to Dutch words. In
7991-621: The MHC genes they have in common. In non-kin communication, where more permanent odor markers are required, as at territorial borders, then non-volatile major urinary proteins (MUPs), which function as pheromone transporters, may also be used. MUPs may also signal individual identity, with each male house mouse ( Mus musculus ) excreting urine containing about a dozen genetically encoded MUPs. House mice deposit urine, which contains pheromones, for territorial marking, individual and group recognition, and social organization. Territorial beavers and red squirrels investigate and become familiar with
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#17327944636048122-785: The Middle Miocene Epoch in Europe and North Africa; in Asia it extends 6 million to 11 million years. Four of the seven living genera include extinct species. One extinct hamster of Cricetus , for example, lived in North Africa during the Middle Miocene, but the only extant member of that genus is the European or common hamster of Eurasia. Neumann et al. (2006) conducted a molecular phylogenetic analysis of 12 of
8253-631: The Romance language's character. Latin borrowings can be known by several names in Romance languages: in French, for example, they are usually referred to as mots savants , in Spanish as cultismos , and in Italian as latinismi . Latin is usually the most common source of loanwords in these languages, such as in Italian, Spanish, French, Portuguese, etc., and in some cases the total number of loans may even outnumber inherited terms (although
8384-477: The United States at least as early as 1942. Other hamsters commonly kept as pets are the three species in the genus Phodopus . Campbell's dwarf hamster ( Phodopus campbelli ) is the most common—they are also sometimes called "Russian dwarfs"; however, many hamsters are from Russia, so this ambiguous name does not distinguish them from other species appropriately. The coat of the winter white dwarf hamster ( Phodopus sungorus ) turns almost white during winter (when
8515-436: The above 17 species using DNA sequence from three genes : 12S rRNA , cytochrome b , and von Willebrand factor . They uncovered the following relationships: The genus Phodopus was found to represent the earliest split among hamsters. Their analysis included both species. The results of another study suggest Cricetulus kamensis (and presumably the related C. alticola ) might belong to either this Phodopus group or hold
8646-441: The amount of UV that is reflected decreases with time, which in some circumstances can be disadvantageous; the common kestrel can distinguish between old and fresh rodent trails and has greater success hunting over more recently marked routes. Vibrations can provide cues to conspecifics about specific behaviors being performed, predator warning and avoidance, herd or group maintenance, and courtship. The Middle East blind mole rat
8777-414: The ancestral language, rather than because one borrowed the word from the other. A loanword is distinguished from a calque (or loan translation ), which is a word or phrase whose meaning or idiom is adopted from another language by word-for-word translation into existing words or word-forming roots of the recipient language. Loanwords, in contrast, are not translated. Examples of loanwords in
8908-694: The appropriate substrate. Wild hamsters will also appropriate tunnels made by other mammals; the Djungarian hamster, for instance, uses paths and burrows of the pika . Hamsters become fertile at different ages depending on their species. Both Syrian and Russian hamsters mature quickly and can begin reproducing at a young age (4–5 weeks), whereas Chinese hamsters will usually begin reproducing at two to three months of age, and Roborovskis at three to four months of age. The female's reproductive life lasts about 18 months, but male hamsters remain fertile much longer. Females are in estrus about every four days, which
9039-524: The breeding season to mate. The pocket gopher is also a solitary animal outside the breeding season, each individual digging a complex tunnel system and maintaining a territory. Larger rodents tend to live in family units where parents and their offspring live together until the young disperse. Beavers live in extended family units typically with a pair of adults, this year's kits, the previous year's offspring, and sometimes older young. Brown rats usually live in small colonies with up to six females sharing
9170-713: The case of males, attempting to make the mother sexually receptive. The latter reason is well supported in primates and lions but less so in rodents. Infanticide appears to be widespread in black-tailed prairie dogs, including infanticide from invading males and immigrant females, as well as occasional cannibalism of an individual's own offspring. To protect against infanticide from other adults, female rodents may employ avoidance or direct aggression against potential perpetrators, multiple mating, territoriality or early termination of pregnancy. Feticide can also occur among rodents; in Alpine marmots , dominant females tend to suppress
9301-640: The cheeks can make their heads double, or even triple in size. Hamsters lose weight during the autumn months in anticipation of winter. This occurs even when hamsters are kept as pets and is related to an increase in exercise. Most hamsters are strictly solitary. If housed together, acute and chronic stress might occur, and they might fight fiercely, sometimes fatally. Dwarf hamster species might tolerate siblings or same-gender unrelated hamsters if introduced at an early enough age, but this cannot be guaranteed. Hamsters communicate through body language to one another and even to their owner. They communicate by sending
9432-479: The cranial anatomy of rodents these feeding methods cannot be used at the same time and are considered to be mutually exclusive. Among rodents, the masseter muscle plays a key role in chewing, making up 60% – 80% of the total muscle mass among masticatory muscles and reflects rodents' herbivorous diet. Rodent groups differ in the arrangement of the jaw muscles and associated skull structures, both from other mammals and amongst themselves. The Sciuromorpha , such as
9563-412: The current year's offspring. Individuals within coteries are friendly with each other, but hostile towards outsiders. Perhaps the most extreme examples of colonial behavior in rodents are the eusocial naked mole rat and Damaraland mole rat . The naked mole rat lives completely underground and can form colonies of up to 80 individuals. Only one female and up to three males in the colony reproduce, while
9694-594: The degu less visible to predators. Ultraviolet light is abundant during the day but not at night. There is a large increase in the ratio of ultraviolet to visible light in the morning and evening twilight hours. Many rodents are active during twilight hours (crepuscular activity), and UV-sensitivity would be advantageous at these times. Ultraviolet reflectivity is of dubious value for nocturnal rodents. The urine of many rodents (e.g. voles, degus, mice, rats) strongly reflects UV light and this may be used in communication by leaving visible as well as olfactory markings. However,
9825-493: The domestic strain. However, the differences in behavioral, chronobiological, morphometrical, hematological, and biochemical parameters are relatively small and fall into the expected range of interstrain variations in other laboratory animals. The name "hamster" is a loanword from the German, which itself derives from earlier Middle High German hamastra . It is possibly related to Old Church Slavonic khomestoru , which
9956-557: The empire, such as Albanian , Bosnian , Bulgarian , Croatian , Greek , Hungarian , Ladino , Macedonian , Montenegrin and Serbian . After the empire fell after World War I and the Republic of Turkey was founded, the Turkish language underwent an extensive language reform led by the newly founded Turkish Language Association , during which many adopted words were replaced with new formations derived from Turkic roots. That
10087-489: The establishment and spread of invasive shrubs. Burrowing rodents may eat the fruiting bodies of fungi and spread spores through their feces, thereby allowing the fungi to disperse and form symbiotic relationships with the roots of plants (which usually cannot thrive without them). As such, these rodents may play a role in maintaining healthy forests. In many temperate regions, beavers play an essential hydrological role. When building their dams and lodges, beavers alter
10218-821: The female. Females can remove the plug and may do so either immediately or after several hours. Metabolism of thyroid hormones and iodine in the mediobasal hypothalamus changes in response to photoperiod . Thyroid hormones in turn induce reproductive changes. This is found by Watanabe et al. 2004 and 2007, Barrett et al. 2007, Freeman et al. 2007, and Herwig et al. 2009 in Siberian hamsters , Revel et al. 2006 and Yasuo et al. 2007 in Syrian hamsters , Yasuo et al. 2007 and Ross et al. 2011 in rats, and Ono et al. 2008 in mice. Rodents may be born either altricial (blind, hairless and relatively underdeveloped) or precocial (mostly furred, eyes open and fairly developed) depending on
10349-498: The females that live within the territories are known as "resident" females. In the case of marmots, resident males do not appear to ever lose their territories and always win encounters with invading males. Some species are also known to directly defend their resident females and the ensuing fights can lead to severe wounding. In species with non-defense polygyny, males are not territorial and wander widely in search of females to monopolize. These males establish dominance hierarchies, with
10480-517: The few animal groups that can break open the large capsules of the Brazil nut fruit. Too many seeds are inside to be consumed in one meal, so the agouti carries some off and caches them. This helps dispersal of the seeds as any that the agouti fails to retrieve are distant from the parent tree when they germinate. Other nut-bearing trees tend to bear a glut of fruits in the autumn. These are too numerous to be eaten in one meal and squirrels gather and store
10611-600: The finding that rodents entirely lack the ability to vomit. In many species, the penis contains a bone, the baculum ; the testes can be located either abdominally or at the groin. Sexual dimorphism occurs in many rodent species. In some rodents, males are larger than females, while in others the reverse is true. Male-bias sexual dimorphism is typical for ground squirrels , kangaroo rats, solitary mole rats and pocket gophers ; it likely developed due to sexual selection and greater male–male combat. Female-bias sexual dimorphism exists among chipmunks and jumping mice . It
10742-468: The fore to the hind limbs. The agouti is fleet-footed and antelope -like, being digitigrade and having hoof-like nails. The majority of rodents have tails, which can be of many shapes and sizes. Some tails are prehensile , as in the Eurasian harvest mouse , and the fur on the tails can vary from bushy to completely bald. The tail is sometimes used for communication, as when beavers slap their tails on
10873-447: The forgery of pet store purchase receipts. Some activists attempted to intercept owners who were on their way to turn in pet hamsters and encourage them to choose adoption instead, which the government subsequently warned would be subject to police action. The extracted cells of babies' kidneys and adults' ovaries are used to study cholesterol synthesis . Some similar rodents sometimes called "hamsters" are not currently classified in
11004-448: The hamster subfamily Cricetinae. These include the maned hamster, or crested hamster, which is really the maned rat ( Lophiomys imhausi ). Others are the mouse-like hamsters ( Calomyscus spp.), and the white-tailed rat ( Mystromys albicaudatus ). Rodent Rodents (from Latin rodere , 'to gnaw') are mammals of the order Rodentia ( / r oʊ ˈ d ɛ n ʃ ə / roh- DEN -shə ), which are characterized by
11135-444: The high-ranking males having access to the most females. This occurs in species like Belding's ground squirrels and some tree squirrel species. Promiscuity , in which both males and females mate with multiple partners, also occurs in rodents. In species such as the white-footed mouse, females give birth to litters with multiple paternities. Promiscuity leads to increased sperm competition and males tend to have larger testicles. In
11266-690: The hind limbs have three to five digits. The elbow gives the forearms great flexibility. The majority of species are plantigrade , walking on both the palms and soles of their feet, and have claw-like nails. The nails of burrowing species tend to be long and strong, while arboreal rodents have shorter, sharper nails. Rodent species use a wide variety of methods of locomotion including quadrupedal walking, running, burrowing, climbing, bipedal hopping ( kangaroo rats and hopping mice ), swimming and even gliding. Scaly-tailed squirrels and flying squirrels , although not closely related, can both glide from tree to tree using parachute-like membranes that stretch from
11397-409: The hours of daylight decrease). The Roborovski hamster ( Phodopus roborovskii ) is extremely small and fast, making it difficult to keep as a pet. A hamster show is an event in which people gather hamsters to judge them against each other. Hamster shows are also places where people share their enthusiasm for hamsters among attendees. Hamster shows feature an exhibition of the hamsters participating in
11528-442: The incisors. Rodents have efficient digestive systems, absorbing nearly 80% of ingested energy. When eating cellulose , the food is softened in the stomach and passed to the cecum , where bacteria reduce it to its carbohydrate elements. The rodent then practices coprophagy , eating its own fecal pellets, so the nutrients can be absorbed by the gut. Rodents therefore often produce a hard and dry fecal pellet. Horn et al. 2013 makes
11659-510: The judging. The judging of hamsters usually includes a goal of promoting hamsters which conform to natural or established varieties of hamsters. By awarding hamsters which match standard hamster types, hamster shows encourage planned and careful hamster breeding. When the first reported case of animal-to-human transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in Hong Kong took place via imported pet hamsters, researchers expressed difficulty in identifying some of
11790-818: The lack of predators and greater competition between males. One of the most widespread groups of mammals, rodents can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They are the only terrestrial placental mammals to have colonized Australia and New Guinea without human intervention. Humans have also allowed the animals to spread to many remote oceanic islands (e.g., the Polynesian rat ). Rodents have adapted to almost every terrestrial habitat, from cold tundra (where they can live under snow) to hot deserts. Some species such as tree squirrels and New World porcupines are arboreal , while some, such as gophers , tuco-tucos , and mole rats, live almost completely underground, where they build complex burrow systems. Others dwell on
11921-708: The language, often adding concepts that did not exist until then, or replacing words of other origins. These common borrowings and features also essentially serve to raise mutual intelligibility of the Romance languages, particularly in academic/scholarly, literary, technical, and scientific domains. Many of these same words are also found in English (through its numerous borrowings from Latin and French) and other European languages. In addition to Latin loanwords, many words of Ancient Greek origin were also borrowed into Romance languages, often in part through scholarly Latin intermediates, and these also often pertained to academic, scientific, literary, and technical topics. Furthermore, to
12052-501: The largest is the European hamster ( Cricetus cricetus ), measuring up to 34 cm (13 in) long, not including a short tail of up to 6 cm (2.4 in). The hamster tail can be difficult to see, as it is usually not very long (about 1 ⁄ 6 the length of the body), with the exception of the Chinese hamster , which has a tail the same length as the body. One rodent characteristic that can be highly visible in hamsters
12183-713: The late 17th century, the Dutch Republic had a leading position in shipbuilding. Czar Peter the Great , eager to improve his navy, studied shipbuilding in Zaandam and Amsterdam . Many Dutch naval terms have been incorporated in the Russian vocabulary, such as бра́мсель ( brámselʹ ) from Dutch bramzeil for the topgallant sail , домкра́т ( domkrát ) from Dutch dommekracht for jack , and матро́с ( matrós ) from Dutch matroos for sailor. A large percentage of
12314-494: The learned borrowings are less often used in common speech, with the most common vocabulary being of inherited, orally transmitted origin from Vulgar Latin). This has led to many cases of etymological doublets in these languages. For most Romance languages, these loans were initiated by scholars, clergy, or other learned people and occurred in Medieval times, peaking in the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance era - in Italian,
12445-502: The leaves, buds, and inner bark of growing trees, as well as aquatic plants. They store food for winter use by felling small trees and leafy branches in the autumn and immersing them in their pond, sticking the ends into the mud to anchor them. Here, they can access their food supply underwater even when their pond is frozen over. Although rodents have been regarded traditionally as herbivores, most small rodents opportunistically include insects, worms, fungi, fish, or meat in their diets and
12576-476: The lexicon of Romance languages , themselves descended from Vulgar Latin , consists of loanwords (later learned or scholarly borrowings ) from Latin. These words can be distinguished by lack of typical sound changes and other transformations found in descended words, or by meanings taken directly from Classical or Ecclesiastical Latin that did not evolve or change over time as expected; in addition, there are also semi-learned terms which were adapted partially to
12707-446: The litter, so the litter must be removed by the time the young can feed and drink independently. Hamsters are born hairless and blind in a nest the mother will have prepared in advance. After one week, they begin to explore outside the nest. Hamsters are capable of producing litters every month. Hamsters can be bred after they are three weeks old. It may be hard for the babies to not rely on their mother for nursing during this time, so it
12838-404: The loanword). Loanwords may be contrasted with calques , in which a word is borrowed into the recipient language by being directly translated from the donor language rather than being adopted in (an approximation of) its original form. They must also be distinguished from cognates , which are words in two or more related languages that are similar because they share an etymological origin in
12969-760: The males do not provide direct parental care and stay with one female because they cannot access others due to being spatially dispersed. Prairie voles appear to be an example of this form of monogamy, with males guarding and defending females within their vicinity. In polygynous species, males will try to monopolize and mate with multiple females. As with monogamy, polygyny in rodents can come in two forms; defense and non-defense. Defense polygyny involves males controlling territories that contain resources that attract females. This occurs in ground squirrels like yellow-bellied marmots , California ground squirrels , Columbian ground squirrels and Richardson's ground squirrels . Males with territories are known as "resident" males and
13100-403: The meaning of these terms is reasonably well-defined only in second language acquisition or language replacement events, when the native speakers of a certain source language (the substrate) are somehow compelled to abandon it for another target language (the superstrate). A Wanderwort is a word that has been borrowed across a wide range of languages remote from its original source; an example
13231-451: The muscle causes the eyeballs to move up and down. The Hystricomorpha , such as the guinea pig, have larger superficial masseter muscles and smaller deep masseter muscles than rats or squirrels, possibly making them less efficient at biting with the incisors, but their enlarged internal pterygoid muscles may allow them to move the jaw further sideways when chewing. The cheek pouch is a specific morphological feature used for storing food and
13362-521: The nature of the precise threat. The urgency of the threat is also conveyed by the acoustic properties of the call. Social rodents have a wider range of vocalizations than do solitary species. Fifteen different call-types have been recognized in adult Kataba mole rats and four in juveniles. Similarly, the common degu , another social, burrowing rodent, exhibits a wide array of communication methods and has an elaborate vocal repertoire comprising fifteen different categories of sound. Ultrasonic calls play
13493-480: The need for food during the winter. Hibernation can last up to one week but more commonly last 2–3 days. When kept as house pets the Syrian hamster does not hibernate. All hamsters are excellent diggers, constructing burrows with one or more entrances, with galleries connected to chambers for nesting, food storage, and other activities. They use their fore- and hindlegs, as well as their snouts and teeth, for digging. In
13624-675: The nest a few days after they have opened their eyes and initially keep returning regularly. As they get older and more developed, they visit the nest less often and leave permanently when weaned. In precocial species, the mothers invest little in nest building and some do not build nests at all. The female gives birth standing and the young emerge behind her. Mothers of these species maintain contact with their highly mobile young with maternal contact calls. Though relatively independent and weaned within days, precocial young may continue to nurse and be groomed by their mothers. Rodent litter sizes also vary and females with smaller litters spend more time in
13755-564: The nest than those with larger litters. Mother rodents provide both direct parental care, such as nursing, grooming, retrieving and huddling, and indirect parenting, such as food caching, nest building and protection to their offspring. In many social species, young may be cared for by individuals other than their parents, a practice known as alloparenting or cooperative breeding . This is known to occur in black-tailed prairie dogs and Belding's ground squirrels, where mothers have communal nests and nurse unrelated young along with their own. There
13886-437: The offspring and play an important part in their survival. This occurs in species such as California mice , oldfield mice , Malagasy giant rats and beavers. In these species, males usually mate only with their partners. In addition to increased care for young, obligate monogamy can also be beneficial to the adult male as it decreases the chances of never finding a mate or mating with an infertile female. In facultative monogamy,
14017-468: The original phonology even though a particular phoneme might not exist or have contrastive status in English. For example, the Hawaiian word ʻaʻā is used by geologists to specify lava that is thick, chunky, and rough. The Hawaiian spelling indicates the two glottal stops in the word, but the English pronunciation, / ˈ ɑː ( ʔ ) ɑː / , contains at most one. The English spelling usually removes
14148-518: The paths of streams and rivers and allow for the creation of extensive wetland habitats. One study found that engineering by beavers leads to a 33 percent increase in the number of herbaceous plant species in riparian areas . Another study found that beavers increase wild salmon populations. Meanwhile, some rodents are seen as pests , due to their wide range. Most rodents are herbivorous , feeding exclusively on plant material such as seeds, stems, leaves, flowers, and roots. Some are omnivorous and
14279-619: The related C. sokolovi ) and C. longicaudatus . The remaining clade contains members of Allocricetulus , Tscherskia , Cricetus , and C. migratorius . Allocricetulus and Cricetus were sister taxa . Cricetulus migratorius was their next closest relative, and Tscherskia was basal. Although the Syrian hamster or golden hamster ( Mesocricetus auratus ) was first described scientifically by George Robert Waterhouse in 1839, researchers were not able to successfully breed and domesticate hamsters until 1939. The entire laboratory and pet populations of Syrian hamsters appear to be descendants of
14410-502: The reproduction of subordinates by being antagonistic towards them while they are pregnant. The resulting stress causes the fetuses to abort. Rodents have advanced cognitive abilities. They can quickly learn to avoid poisoned baits, which makes them difficult pests to deal with. Guinea pigs can learn and remember complex pathways to food. Squirrels and kangaroo rats are able to locate caches of food by spatial memory , rather than just by smell. Loanword A loanword (also
14541-414: The rest of the members are smaller and sterile, and function as workers. Some individuals are of intermediate size. They help with the rearing of the young and can take the place of a reproductive if one dies. The Damaraland mole rat is characterized by having a single reproductively active male and female in a colony where the remaining animals are not truly sterile, but become fertile only if they establish
14672-408: The rodents is their pairs of continuously growing, razor-sharp, open-rooted incisors . These incisors have thick layers of enamel on the front and little enamel on the back. Because they do not stop growing, the animal must continue to wear them down so that they do not reach and pierce the skull. As the incisors grind against each other, the softer dentine on the rear of the teeth wears away, leaving
14803-798: The scents of their neighbors and respond less aggressively to intrusions by them than to those made by non-territorial "floaters" or strangers. This is known as the " dear enemy effect ". Many rodent species, particularly those that are diurnal and social, have a wide range of alarm calls that are emitted when they perceive threats. There are both direct and indirect benefits of doing this. A potential predator may stop when it knows it has been detected, or an alarm call can allow conspecifics or related individuals to take evasive action. Several species, for example prairie dogs, have complex anti-predator alarm call systems. These species may have different calls for different predators (e.g. aerial predators or ground-based predators) and each call contains information about
14934-441: The sharp enamel edge shaped like the blade of a chisel . Most species have up to 22 teeth with no canines or anterior premolars . A gap, or diastema , occurs between the incisors and the cheek teeth in most species. This allows rodents to suck in their cheeks or lips to shield their mouth and throat from wood shavings and other inedible material, discarding this waste from the sides of their mouths. Chinchillas and guinea pigs have
15065-495: The sound of their food and even their owner's voice. They are also particularly sensitive to high-pitched noises and can hear and communicate in the ultrasonic range. Hamsters are omnivores , which means they can eat meat and plant matter. Hamsters that live in the wild eat seeds, grass, and even insects. Although pet hamsters can survive on a diet of exclusively commercial hamster food, other items, such as vegetables, fruits, seeds, and nuts, can be given. Although store-bought food
15196-422: The species. The altricial state is typical for squirrels and mice, while the precocial state usually occurs in species like guinea pigs and porcupines. Females with altricial young typically build elaborate nests before they give birth and maintain them until their offspring are weaned . The female gives birth sitting or lying down and the young emerge in the direction she is facing. The newborns first venture out of
15327-652: The stomach contents of the North American white-footed mouse , normally considered to be herbivorous, showed 34% animal matter. More specialized carnivores include the shrewlike rats of the Philippines, which feed on insects and soft-bodied invertebrates, and the rakali or Australian water-rat, which devours aquatic insects, fish, crustaceans, mussels, snails, frogs, birds' eggs, and water birds. The grasshopper mouse from dry regions of North America feeds on insects, scorpions, and other small mice, and only
15458-451: The surface beneath them, leaving a scent trail. Hamsters also use their sense of smell to distinguish between the sexes and to locate food. Mother hamsters can also use their sense of smell to find their own babies and identify which ones are not theirs. Their scent glands can also be used to mark their territories, their babies, or their mate. Hamsters catch sounds by having their ears upright. They tend to learn similar noises and begin to know
15589-536: The surface of the ground, but may have a burrow into which they can retreat. Beavers and muskrats are known for being semiaquatic, but the rodent best adapted for aquatic life is probably the earless water rat from New Guinea. Rodents have also thrived in human-created environments such as agricultural and urban areas . Though some species are common pests for humans, rodents also play important ecological roles. Some rodents are considered keystone species and ecosystem engineers in their respective habitats. In
15720-435: The surface to feed by seizing the roots of plants with its jaws and pulling them downwards into its burrow. It also practices coprophagy. The African pouched rat forages on the surface, gathering anything that might be edible into its capacious cheek pouches until its face bulges out sideways. It then returns to its burrow to sort through the material it has gathered and eats the nutritious items. Agouti species are one of
15851-484: The surplus in crevices and hollow trees. In desert regions, seeds are often available only for short periods. The kangaroo rat collects all it can find and stores them in larder chambers in its burrow. A strategy for dealing with seasonal plenty is to eat as much as possible and store the surplus nutrients as fat. Marmots do this, and may be 50% heavier in the autumn than in the spring. They rely on their fat reserves during their long winter hibernation . Beavers feed on
15982-487: The transfer, rather than that of the descriptive linguist. Accordingly, the category 'simple' words also includes compounds that are transferred in unanalysed form". After this general classification, Weinreich then resorts to Betz's (1949) terminology. The English language has borrowed many words from other cultures or languages. For examples, see Lists of English words by country or language of origin and Anglicisation . Some English loanwords remain relatively faithful to
16113-469: The ultraviolet (UV) spectrum and therefore can see light that humans can not. The functions of this UV sensitivity are not always clear. In degus , for example, the belly reflects more UV light than the back. Therefore, when a degu stands up on its hind legs, which it does when alarmed, it exposes its belly to other degus and ultraviolet vision may serve a purpose in communicating the alarm. When it stands on all fours, its low UV-reflectance back could help make
16244-446: The viral mutations within a global genomic data bank, leading city authorities to announce a mass cull of all hamsters purchased after December 22, 2021, which would affect roughly 2,000 animals. After the government 'strongly encouraged' citizens to turn in their pets, approximately 3,000 people joined underground activities to promote the adoption of abandoned hamsters throughout the city and to maintain pet ownership via methods such as
16375-474: The water surface or house mice rattle their tails to indicate alarm. Some species have vestigial tails or no tails at all. In some species, the tail is capable of regeneration if a part is broken off. Rodents generally have well-developed senses of smell , hearing, and vision. Nocturnal species often have enlarged eyes and some are sensitive to ultraviolet light. Many species have long, sensitive whiskers or vibrissae for touch or "whisking" . Whisker action
16506-472: The way the name would sound in the original language, as in the pronunciation of Louisville . During more than 600 years of the Ottoman Empire , the literary and administrative language of the empire was Turkish , with many Persian and Arabic loanwords, called Ottoman Turkish , considerably differing from the everyday spoken Turkish of the time. Many such words were adopted by other languages of
16637-523: The wild, the burrow buffers extreme ambient temperatures, offers relatively stable climatic conditions, and protects against predators. Syrian hamsters dig their burrows generally at a depth of 70 cm (2.3 ft). A burrow includes a steep entrance pipe (4–5 cm (1.6–2.0 in) in diameter), a nesting and a hoarding chamber and a blind-ending branch for urination. Laboratory hamsters have not lost their ability to dig burrows; in fact, they will do this with great vigor and skill if they are provided with
16768-655: The word loanword and the phrase loan translation are translated from German nouns Lehnwort and Lehnübersetzung ( German: [ˈleːnʔybɐˌzɛt͡sʊŋ] ). Loans of multi-word phrases, such as the English use of the French term déjà vu , are known as adoptions, adaptations, or lexical borrowings. Although colloquial and informal register loanwords are typically spread by word-of-mouth, technical or academic loanwords tend to be first used in written language, often for scholarly, scientific, or literary purposes. The terms substrate and superstrate are often used when two languages interact. However,
16899-695: The word and if they hear it think it is from another language, the word can be called a foreign word. There are many foreign words and phrases used in English such as bon vivant (French), mutatis mutandis (Latin), and Schadenfreude (German)." This is not how the term is used in this illustration: [REDACTED] On the basis of an importation-substitution distinction, Haugen (1950: 214f.) distinguishes three basic groups of borrowings: "(1) Loanwords show morphemic importation without substitution.... (2) Loanblends show morphemic substitution as well as importation.... (3) Loanshifts show morphemic substitution without importation". Haugen later refined (1956) his model in
17030-426: Was part of the ongoing cultural reform of the time, in turn a part in the broader framework of Atatürk's Reforms , which also included the introduction of the new Turkish alphabet . Turkish also has taken many words from French , such as pantolon for trousers (from French pantalon ) and komik for funny (from French comique ), most of them pronounced very similarly. Word usage in modern Turkey has acquired
17161-412: Was the first mammal for which seismic communication was documented. These fossorial rodents bang their head against the walls of their tunnels. This behavior was initially interpreted as part of their tunnel building behavior, but it was eventually realized that they generate temporally patterned seismic signals for long-distance communication with neighboring mole rats. Footdrumming is used widely as
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