Misplaced Pages

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125-464: It has the southernmost stock of several arctic animals and plants. Its wild reindeer herds are among the largest in the world. Several hundred nomadic Stone Age settlements have been found in the area, most likely related to the migration of the reindeer. Ancient trails cross the plateau, linking western and eastern Norway; one example is the Nordmannsslepa linking Eidfjord and Veggli in

250-582: A Dene (Athapascan) group, call the Arctic caribou Ɂekwǫ̀ and the boreal woodland caribou tǫdzı . The Gwichʼin (also a Dene group) have over 24 distinct caribou-related words. Reindeer are also called tuttu by the Greenlandic Inuit and hreindýr , sometimes rein , by the Icelanders . The "glacial-interglacial cycles of the upper Pleistocene had a major influence on

375-464: A boreal forest hosting a species assemblage with no modern analogue. These are among the oldest DNA fragments ever sequenced. Carl Linnaeus in 1758 named the Eurasian tundra species Cervus tarandus , the genus Rangifer being credited to Smith, 1827. Rangifer has had a convoluted history because of the similarity in antler architecture (brow tines asymmetrical and often palmate, bez tines,

500-475: A subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification: Dfc ) in the 1991–2020 base period. and Weather Atlas Oslo has many parks and green areas within the city core, as well as outside it. Oslo (with neighbouring Sandvika-Asker) is built in a horseshoe shape on the shores of the Oslofjord and limited in most directions by hills and forests. As a result, any point within the city is relatively close to

625-463: A Captain Craycott had brought a live pair from Greenland to England in 1738. He named it Capra groenlandicus , Greenland reindeer. Linnaeus, in the 12th edition of Systema naturae , gave grœnlandicus as a synonym for Cervus tarandus . Borowski disagreed (and again changed the spelling), saying Cervus grönlandicus was morphologically distinct from Eurasian tundra reindeer. Baird placed it under

750-411: A Danish king ( Christian IV of Denmark ) was inappropriate as the name of the capital of their country. The municipality developed new areas such as Ullevål garden city (1918–1926) and Torshov (1917–1925). City Hall was constructed in the former slum area of Vika from 1931 to 1950. In 1948, Oslo merged with Aker , a municipality which surrounded the capital and was 27 times larger, thus creating

875-454: A back tine sometimes branched, and branched at the distal end, often palmate). Because of individual variability, early taxonomists were unable to discern consistent patterns among populations, nor could they, examining collections in Europe, appreciate the difference in habitats and the differing function they imposed on antler architecture. Comparative morphometrics, the measurement of skulls,

1000-778: A broad, high muzzle to increase the volume of the nasal cavity to warm and moisten the air before it enters the throat and lungs, bez tines set close to the brow tines, distinctive coat patterns, short legs and other adaptations for running long distances, and multiple behaviors suited to tundra, but not to forest (such as synchronized calving and aggregation during rutting and post-calving). As well, many genes, including those for vitamin D metabolism, fat metabolism , retinal development, circadian rhythm , and tolerance to cold temperatures, are found in tundra caribou that are lacking or rudimentary in forest types. For this reason, forest-adapted reindeer and caribou could not survive in tundra or polar deserts . The oldest undoubted Rangifer fossil

1125-469: A city at the end of the Viking Age in 1040 under the name Ánslo , and established as a kaupstad or trading place in 1048 by Harald Hardrada . The city was elevated to a bishopric in 1070 and a capital under Haakon V of Norway around the year 1300. Personal unions with Denmark from 1397 to 1523 and again from 1536 to 1814 reduced its influence. After being destroyed by a fire in 1624, during

1250-439: A direct common ancestor , they cannot be Biological specificity#conspecific|conspecific. Similarly, woodland caribou diverged from the ancestors of Arctic caribou before modern barren-ground caribou had evolved, and were more likely related to extinct North American forest reindeer (see Evolution above). Lacking a direct shared ancestor, barren-ground and woodland caribou cannot be conspecific. Molecular data also revealed that

1375-474: A few years, new large scale housing areas and infrastructure projects are being built and planned across the city, notably in Hasle , Helsfyr , Bjørvika , Nydalen and Sinsen , this is increasing the density in and around Ring 2 and Ring 3 . The Fornebu line on the metro is under construction as of 2024, and further subway lines crossing the inner city are being planned. Oslo occupies an arc of land at

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1500-455: A fire in 1624, during the reign of King Christian IV , a new city was built closer to Akershus Fortress and named Christiania in the king's honour. The old site east of the Aker river was not abandoned, however, and the village of Oslo remained as a suburb outside the city gates. The suburb called Oslo was eventually included in the city proper. In 1925 the name of the suburb was transferred to

1625-611: A forest subspecies, formerly included reindeer west of the Sea of Okhotsk which, however, are indistinguishable genetically from the Jano-Indigirka, East Siberian taiga and Chukotka populations of R. t. sibiricus . Siberian tundra reindeer herds have been in decline but are stable or increasing since 2000. Insular (island) reindeer, classified as the Novaya Zemlya reindeer ( R. t. pearsoni ) occupy several island groups:

1750-646: A formal coat of arms , but which uses a city seal instead. The seal of Oslo shows the city's patron saint , St. Hallvard , with his attributes, the millstone and arrows , with a naked woman at his feet. He is seated on a throne with lion decorations, which at the time was also commonly used by the Norwegian kings . Oslo has various nicknames and names in other languages. The city is sometimes known as "The Tiger City" ( Norwegian : Tigerstaden ), probably inspired by an 1870 poem by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson which referenced then-Christiania in central Oslo. The nickname

1875-428: A large scale in the world. Both wild and domestic reindeer have been an important source of food, clothing, and shelter for Arctic people from prehistorical times. They are still herded and hunted today. In some traditional Christmas legends, Santa Claus's reindeer pull a sleigh through the night sky to help Santa Claus deliver gifts to good children on Christmas Eve. Names follow international convention before

2000-725: A mtDNA haplotype with Labrador caribou, in the North American lineage (i.e., woodland caribou). Røed et al. (1991) had noted: Among Baffin Island caribou the TFL2 allele was the most common allele (p=0.521), while this allele was absent, or present in very low frequencies, in other caribou populations (Table 1), including the Canadian barren-ground caribou from the Beverly herd. A large genetic difference between Baffin Island caribou and

2125-816: A new revision of the genus. Abbreviations: The table above includes, as per the recent revision, R. t. caboti (the Labrador caribou (the Eastern Migratory population DU4)), and R. t. terranovae (the Newfoundland caribou (the Newfoundland population DU5)), which molecular analyses have shown to be of North American (i.e., woodland caribou) lineage; and four mountain ecotypes now known to be of distant Beringia - Eurasia lineage (see Taxonomy above). The scientific name Tarandus rangifer buskensis Millais, 1915 (the Busk Mountains reindeer)

2250-408: A population of 717,710 as of 1 January 2024. The urban area extends far beyond the boundaries of the municipality into the surrounding county of Akershus (municipalities of Asker , Bærum , Lillestrøm , Enebakk , Rælingen , Lørenskog , Nittedal , Gjerdrum , Nordre Follo ); being, to a great degree suburbs of Oslo making up approximately 500,000 of the population of the greater Oslo region .

2375-444: A preceding urban settlement. This called for the celebration of Oslo's millennium in 2000 rather than 2049. Under the reign of Olaf III of Norway (1067-1093), Oslo became a cultural centre for Eastern Norway . Hallvard Vebjørnsson became the city's patron saint and is depicted on the city's seal. In 1174, Hovedøya Abbey was built. The churches and abbeys became major owners of large tracts of land, which proved important for

2500-439: A predator-avoidance strategy, which requires large rutting aggregations. Males cannot defend a harem because, while he was busy fighting, they would disappear into the mass of the herd. Males therefore tend individual females; their fights are infrequent and brief. Their antlers are thin, beams round in cross-section, sweep back and then forward with a cluster of branches at the top; these are designed more for visual stimulation of

2625-535: A river "Lo" predating the work where Peder Claussøn Friis first proposed this etymology, but the very name is ungrammatical in Norwegian: the correct form would have been Loaros (cf. Nidaros ). The name Lo is now believed to be a back-formation arrived at by Friis in support of his [idea about] etymology for Oslo . Oslo is one of very few cities in Norway, besides Bergen and Tønsberg , that does not have

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2750-549: A scathing review by Ian McTaggart-Cowan in 1962. Most authorities continued to consider all or most subspecies valid; some were quite distinct. In his chapter in the authoritative 2005 reference work Mammal Species of the World , referenced by the American Society of Mammalogists , English zoologist Peter Grubb agreed with Valerius Geist , a specialist on large mammals, that these subspecies were valid (i.e., before

2875-772: A very interesting history. Allen (1902) named it as a distinct species, R. granti , from the "western end of Alaska Peninsula , opposite Popoff Island " and noting that: Rangifer granti is a representative of the Barren Ground group of Caribou, which includes R. arcticus of the Arctic Coast and R. granlandicus of Greenland. It is not closely related to R. stonei of the Kenai Peninsula, from which it differs not only in its very much smaller size, but in important cranial characters and in coloration. ...The external and cranial differences between R. granti and

3000-808: A wildlife rehabilitation center in Canada, caribou were considered extirpated from the contiguous United States . The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) classified both the Southern Mountain population DU9 ( R. t. montanus ) and the Central Mountain population DU8 ( R. t. fortidens ) as Endangered and the Northern Mountain population DU7 ( R. t. osborni ) as Threatened. Some species and subspecies are rare and three subspecies have already become extinct:

3125-461: Is Marka (1,610 residents, 301.1 km ), that is administered by several boroughs; and Sentrum (1,471 residents, 1.8 km ) that is partially administered by St. Hanshaugen, and in part directly by the city council. As of 27 February 2020, there were 2,386 residents who were not allocated to a borough. The 9 municipalities directly included in the Urban area of Oslo. After being destroyed by

3250-450: Is July 1901 with mean 22.7 °C (72.9 °F), and the all-time high 35 °C (95 °F) was also recorded in July 1901. The warmest month in more recent years is July 2018 with mean 22.2 °C (72.0 °F) and average daily high 29 °C (84.2 °F). The record summer of 2018 also recorded the warmest May and May all-time high with 31.1 °C (88.0 °F) on 30th, and 2018

3375-468: Is a historic timber framing house located on the north side of Christiania Torv; it was built in 1640. The transformation of Christiania went slowly for the first hundred years. However, outside of the city at Vaterland , Grønland , and the old town of Oslo , a new, unmanaged part of the city arose populated by citizens of lower class status. The last Black Death outbreak in Oslo occurred in 1654. In

3500-520: Is agricultural. The open areas within the built-up zone amount to 22 km (8.5 sq mi). The city of Oslo was established as a municipality on 3 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt ). It was separated from the county of Akershus to become a county of its own in 1842. The rural municipality of Aker was merged with Oslo on 1 January 1948 (and simultaneously transferred from Akershus county to Oslo county). Furthermore, Oslo shares several important functions with Akershus county. In addition

3625-559: Is also a hub of Norwegian trade, banking, industry and shipping. It is an important centre for maritime industries and maritime trade in Europe. The city is home to many companies within the maritime sector, some of which are among the world's largest shipping companies, shipbrokers and maritime insurance brokers. Oslo is a pilot city of the Council of Europe and the European Commission intercultural cities programme. Oslo

3750-523: Is also a main source of drinking water for large parts of Oslo. Although Eastern Norway has a number of rivers, none of these flow into the ocean at Oslo. Instead Oslo has two smaller rivers: Akerselva (draining Maridalsvannet, which flows into the fjord in Bjørvika ), and Alna . The waterfalls in Akerselva gave power to some of the first modern industry of Norway in the 1840s. Later in the century,

3875-587: Is considered a global city and was ranked "Beta World City" in studies carried out by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network in 2008. It was ranked number one in terms of quality of life among European large cities in the European Cities of the Future 2012 report by fDi magazine. A survey conducted by ECA International in 2011 placed Oslo as the second most expensive city in

Hardangervidda National Park - Misplaced Pages Continue

4000-580: Is from Omsk , Russia, dated to 2.1-1.8 Ma. The oldest North American Rangifer fossil is from the Yukon , 1.6 million years before present (BP). A fossil skull fragment from Süßenborn, Germany, R. arcticus stadelmanni , (which is probably misnamed) with "rather thin and cylinder-shaped" antlers, dates to the Middle Pleistocene (Günz) Period, 680,000-620,000 BP. Rangifer fossils become increasingly frequent in circumpolar deposits beginning with

4125-430: Is great for barbecues, swimming, beach volleyball and other activities. The municipality operates eight public swimming pools. Tøyenbadet is the largest indoor swimming facility in Oslo and one of the few pools in Norway offering a 50-metre main pool. Another in that size is the outdoor pool Frognerbadet . Oslo's cityscape is being redeveloped as a modern city with various access-points, an extensive metro-system with

4250-433: Is great for hiking, fishing, wildlife viewing, cycling, horseback riding, canoeing, hunting and other summer activities. Hiking is the easiest and best way to experience Hardangervidda national park. The Norwegian Trekking Association offers a network of hiking paths and cabins connecting Hardangervidda from Haukeliseter and Mogen in the south to Finse in the north, Rjukan and Geilo in the east and Eidfjord and Odda in

4375-783: Is mostly used by Norwegians from out of town, and rarely by people from the Oslo region. During the Viking Age , the area that includes modern Oslo was located in Viken , the northernmost province of Denmark . Control over the area shifted between Danish and Norwegian kings in the Middle Ages, and Denmark continued to claim the area until 1241. According to the Norse sagas , Oslo was founded around 1049 by Harald Hardrada . Recent archaeological research, however, uncovered Christian burials which could be dated to prior to AD 1000, evidence of

4500-473: Is much flatter and more heavily vegetated. The climate also varies between the two sides: it is considerably wetter on the west side than on the east, with over 1,000 millimetres (39 in) per year recorded in some parts. The prominent peak of Hårteigen 1,690 m (5,545 ft) is visible across much of the plateau. Much of the Hardangervidda's geology is extremely ancient. The rolling fells of

4625-475: Is necessary with R. montanus or with any of the woodland forms." Osgood and Murie (1935), agreeing with granti ' s close relationship with the barren-ground caribou, brought it under R. arcticus as a subspecies, R. t. granti . Anderson (1946) and Banfield (1961), based on statistical analysis of cranial, dental and other characters, agreed. But Banfield (1961) also synonymized Alaska's large R. stonei with other mountain caribou of British Columbia and

4750-664: Is often seen as more objective than description of differences of color or antler patterns, but actually confounds genetic variance with epistatic and statistical variance as well as compounded environment-based variance. For example, woodland caribou males, rutting in boreal forest where only a few females can be found, collect harems and defend them against other males, for which they have short, straight, strong, much-branched antlers, beams flattened in cross-section, designed for combat — and not too large, so as not to impede them in forested winter ranges. By contrast, modern tundra caribou (see Evolution above) have synchronized calving as

4875-403: Is the capital and most populous city of Norway . It constitutes both a county and a municipality . The municipality of Oslo had a population of 709,037 in 2022, while the city's greater urban area had a population of 1,064,235 in 2022, and the metropolitan area had an estimated population of 1,546,706 in 2021. During the Viking Age , the area was part of Viken . Oslo was founded as

5000-434: Is the only representative of the genus Rangifer . More recent studies suggest the splitting of reindeer and caribou into six distinct species over their range. Reindeer occur in both migratory and sedentary populations, and their herd sizes vary greatly in different regions. The tundra subspecies are adapted for extreme cold, and some are adapted for long-distance migration. Reindeer vary greatly in size and color from

5125-578: Is used, an oceanic climate ( Cfb ) bordering on a humid continental climate in the 1991–2020 base period. Oslo has some of the warmest summers of Norway and fairly cold winters. Oslo receives a fair amount of precipitation during the year. The driest seasons are winter and spring, and the wettest are summer and autumn. Because of the city's northern latitude, daylight varies greatly, from more than 18 hours in midsummer, when it never gets completely dark at night (no darker than nautical twilight ), to around 6 hours in midwinter. The warmest month on record

Hardangervidda National Park - Misplaced Pages Continue

5250-560: Is −29.6 °C (−21.3 °F), on 21 January 1841, while the coldest recorded at Blindern is −26 °C (−14.8 °F) in January 1941. The coldest temperature more recently was on 6 January 2024, where the temperature reached -23.1 °C (-17 °F) at Oslo-Blindern, which is the coldest measured temperature since January 1987. The coldest month on record is January 1941 and also January 1947 with mean −12.9 °C (8.8 °F) and average daily low −16.7 °C (1.9 °F). The average date for

5375-637: The 2011 Norway attacks , Oslo was hit by a bomb blast that ripped through the Government Quarter , damaging several buildings including the building that houses the Office of the Prime Minister . Eight people died in the bomb attack. On 25 June 2022, two people were killed and 21 others injured in a mass shooting . An Iranian-born Norwegian citizen was subsequently charged with "aggravated terrorism". The city has continued to expand. For

5500-594: The Early Pleistocene (2 million years ago) Kap Kobenhavn Formation of northern Greenland identified preserved DNA fragments of Rangifer , identified as basal but potentially ancestral to modern reindeer. This suggests that reindeer have inhabited Greenland since at least the Early Pleistocene. Around this time, northern Greenland was 11–19 °C (20–34 °F) warmer than the Holocene , with

5625-720: The Hardangervidda Natursenter (Nature Centre) in the village of Øvre Eidfjord in Eidfjord municipality, and the Hardangervidda Nasjonalparksenter (National Park Centre) at Skinnarbu in Tinn municipality which is located near the lake Møsvatnet , the town of Rjukan , and the mountain village of Rauland . The Hardangervidda has been occupied for thousands of years; several hundred nomadic Stone Age settlements have been found in

5750-738: The Last Glacial Period until the present day. In the non-forested mountains of central Norway, such as Jotunheimen , it is still possible to find remains of stone-built trapping pits , guiding fences and bow rests, built especially for hunting reindeer. These can, with some certainty, be dated to the Migration Period , although it is not unlikely that they have been in use since the Stone Age . Cave paintings by ancient Europeans include both tundra and forest types of reindeer. A 2022 study of ancient environmental DNA from

5875-801: The Late Miocene , 8.7–9.6 million years ago. Rangifer "evolved as a mountain deer, ...exploiting the subalpine and alpine meadows...". Rangifer originated in the Late Pliocene and diversified in the Early Pleistocene , a 2+ million-year period of multiple glacier advances and retreats. Several named Rangifer fossils in Eurasia and North America predate the evolution of modern tundra reindeer. Archaeologists distinguish "modern" tundra reindeer and barren-ground caribou from primitive forms – living and extinct – that did not have adaptations to extreme cold and to long-distance migration. They include

6000-568: The Mi'kmaq qalipu , meaning "snow shoveler", and refers to its habit of pawing through the snow for food. Because of its importance to many cultures, Rangifer and some of its species and subspecies have names in many languages. Inuvialuit of the western Canadian Arctic and Inuit of the eastern Canadian Arctic, who speak different dialects of the Inuit languages , both call the barren-ground caribou tuktu . The Wekʼèezhìi ( Tłı̨chǫ ) people,

6125-663: The Novaya Zemlya Archipelago (about 5,000 animals at last count, but most of these are either domestic reindeer or domestic-wild hybrids), the New Siberia Archipelago (about 10,000 to 15,000), and Wrangel Island (200 to 300 feral domestic reindeer). What was once the second largest herd is the migratory Labrador caribou ( R. t. caboti ) George River herd in Canada, with former variations between 28,000 and 385,000. As of January 2018, there are fewer than 9,000 animals estimated to be left in

6250-514: The Numedal valley with Hol and Uvdal . The name Hardangervidda is put together by the name of the district Hardanger and the finite form of vidde , 'wide plain, large mountain plateau'. The plateau is the largest peneplain (eroded plain) in Europe , covering an area of about 6,500 km (2,500 sq mi) at an average elevation of 1,100 metres (3,600 ft). The highest point on

6375-681: The Queen Charlotte Islands caribou ( R. t. dawsoni ) from western Canada, the Sakhalin reindeer ( R. t. setoni ) from Sakhalin and the East Greenland caribou from eastern Greenland, although some authorities believe that the latter, R. t. eogroenlandicus Degerbøl, 1957, is a junior synonym of the Peary caribou. Historically, the range of the sedentary boreal woodland caribou covered more than half of Canada and into

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6500-600: The Riss glaciations , the second youngest of the Pleistocene Epoch, roughly 300,000–130,000 BP. By the 4-Würm period (110,000–70,000 to 12,000–10,000 BP), its European range was extensive, supplying a major food source for prehistoric Europeans. North American fossils outside of Beringia that predate the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) are of Rancholabrean age (240,000–11,000 years BP) and occur along

6625-944: The Scandinavian mountains and R. t. sibiricus across Siberia) and east ( R. t. arcticus in the North American Barrenlands) when rising seas isolated them. Likewise in North America, DNA analysis shows that woodland caribou ( R. caribou ) diverged from primitive ancestors of tundra / barren-ground caribou not during the LGM, 26,000–19,000 years ago, as previously assumed, but in the Middle Pleistocene around 357,000 years ago. At that time, modern tundra caribou had not even evolved. Woodland caribou are likely more related to extinct North American forest caribou than to barren-ground caribou. For example,

6750-474: The Sámi word raingo . Carl Linnaeus chose the word tarandus as the specific epithet, making reference to Ulisse Aldrovandi 's Quadrupedum omnium bisulcorum historia fol. 859–863, Cap. 30: De Tarando (1621). However, Aldrovandi and Conrad Gessner thought that rangifer and tarandus were two separate animals. In any case, the tarandos name goes back to Aristotle and Theophrastus . The use of

6875-864: The polar desert of the high Arctic Archipelago and Grant's caribou ( R. t. granti also called the Porcupine caribou ) lives in the western end of the Alaska Peninsula and the adjacent islands; the other four subspecies, Osborn's caribou ( R. t. osborni ), Stone's caribou ( R. t. stonei ), the Rocky Mountain caribou ( R. t. fortidens ) and the Selkirk Mountains caribou ( R. t. montanus ) are all montane . The extinct insular Queen Charlotte Islands caribou ( R. t. dawsoni ), lived on Graham Island in Haida Gwaii (formerly known as

7000-520: The tundra , taiga (boreal forest) and south through the Canadian Rocky Mountains . Of the eight subspecies classified by Harding (2022) into the Arctic caribou ( R. arcticus ), the migratory mainland barren-ground caribou of Arctic Alaska and Northern Canada ( R. t. arcticus ), summer in tundra and winter in taiga, a transitional forest zone between boreal forest and tundra; the nomadic Peary caribou ( R. t. pearyi ) lives in

7125-546: The 18th century, after the Great Northern War , the city's economy boomed with shipbuilding and trade. The strong economy transformed Christiania into a trading port. The Royal Frederick University (now the University of Oslo ) was founded in 1811; the fact that it was founded this late reportedly had an adverse effect on the development of the nation. In 1814 the former provincial town of Christiania became

7250-908: The 19th century, including the Royal Palace (1825-1848), the Stock Exchange (1826-1828), the Bank of Norway (1828), the Storting (1861-1866), the National Theatre (1899), and several University buildings. Among the world-famous artists who lived here during this period were Henrik Ibsen and Knut Hamsun (the latter was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature). Large areas of the surrounding Aker municipality were incorporated in 1839, 1859, and 1878. The 1859 expansion included Grünerløkka , Grønland , and Oslo . At that time

7375-422: The Arctic caribou. Siberian tundra reindeer herds are also in decline, and Rangifer as a whole is considered to be Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Charles Hamilton Smith is credited with the name Rangifer for the reindeer genus, which Albertus Magnus used in his De animalibus , fol. Liber 22, Cap. 268: "Dicitur Rangyfer quasi ramifer". This word may go back to

7500-626: The Beverly herd was also indicated by eight alleles found in the Beverly herd which were absent from the Baffin Island samples. Jenkins et al. (2018) also reported genetic distinctiveness of Baffin Island caribou from all other barren-ground caribou; its genetic signature was not found on the mainland or on other islands; nor were Beverly herd (the nearest mainly barren-ground caribou) alleles present in Baffin Island caribou, evidence of reproductive isolation. These advances in Rangifer genetics were brought together with previous morphological-based descriptions, ecology, behavior and archaeology to propose

7625-464: The Eurasian reindeer radiation dates to the large Riss glaciation (347,000 to 128,000 years ago), based on the Norwegian-Svalbard split 225,000 years ago. Finnish forest reindeer ( R. t. fennicus ) likely evolved from Cervus [Rangifer] geuttardi Desmarest, 1822, a reindeer that adapted to forest habitats in Eastern Europe as forests expanded during an interglacial period before the LGM (the Würmian or Weichsel glaciation );. The fossil species geuttardi

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7750-399: The George River herd, as reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation . The New York Times reported in April 2018 of the disappearance of the only herd of southern mountain woodland caribou in the contiguous United States , with an expert calling it "functionally extinct" after the herd's size dwindled to a mere three animals. After the last individual, a female, was translocated to

7875-412: The Greenland caribou ( R. t. groenlandicus ) and the Svalbard reindeer ( R. t. platyrhynchus ), although not closely related to each other, were the most genetically divergent among Rangifer clades; that modern (see Evolution above) Eurasian tundra reindeer ( R. t. tarandus and R. t. sibiricus ) and North American barren-ground caribou ( R. t. arcticus ), although sharing ancestry, were separable at

8000-415: The Hardangervidda are the remnants of mountains that were worn down by the action of glaciers during the ice ages . The bedrock is mainly of Precambrian and Cambro - Silurian origin. The whole of the Hardangervidda is above the tree line . Its alpine climate enables the presence of many species of arctic animals and plants further south than anywhere else in Europe. Its wild reindeer herds are among

8125-425: The Mammals of the World Vol. 2: Hoofed Mammals . Most Russian authors also recognized R. t. angustirostris , a forest reindeer from east of Lake Baikal . However, since 1991, many genetic studies have revealed deep divergence between modern tundra reindeer and woodland caribou. Geist (2007) and others continued arguing that the woodland caribou was incorrectly classified, noting that "true woodland caribou,

8250-431: The Queen Charlotte Islands). The boreal woodland caribou ( R. t. caribou ), lives in the boreal forest of northeastern Canada: the Labrador or Ungava caribou of northern Quebec and northern Labrador ( R. t. caboti ), and the Newfoundland caribou of Newfoundland ( R. t. terranovae ) have been found to be genetically in the woodland caribou lineage. In Eurasia, both wild and domestic reindeer are distributed across

8375-418: The Reindeer and Caribou, Genus Rangifer (1961), eliminated R. t. caboti (the Labrador caribou), R. t. osborni (Osborn's caribou — from British Columbia ) and R. t. terranovae (the Newfoundland caribou) as invalid and included only barren-ground caribou , renamed as R. t. groenlandicus (formerly R. arcticus ) and woodland caribou as R. t. caribou . However, Banfield made multiple errors, eliciting

8500-657: The Siberian forest reindeer ( R. t. valentinae , formerly called the Busk Mountains reindeer ( R. t. buskensis ) by American taxonomists) occupies the Altai and Ural Mountains . Male ("bull") and female ("cow") reindeer can grow antlers annually, although the proportion of females that grow antlers varies greatly between populations. Antlers are typically larger on males. Antler architecture varies by species and subspecies and, together with pelage differences, can often be used to distinguish between species and subspecies (see illustrations in Geist, 1991 and Geist, 1998). About 25,000 mountain reindeer ( R. t. tarandus ) still live in

8625-509: The Yukon as invalid subspecies of woodland caribou, then R. t. caribou . This left the small, migratory barren-ground caribou of Alaska and the Yukon, including the Porcupine caribou herd, without a name, which Banfield rectified in his 1974 Mammals of Canada by extending to them the name " granti ". The late Valerius Geist (1998), in the only error in his whole illustrious career, re-analyzed Banfield's data with additional specimens found in an unpublished report he cites as "Skal, 1982", but

8750-417: The area called Oslo (now Gamlebyen or Old Town) was a village or suburb outside the city borders east of Aker river. The population increased from approximately 10.000 in 1814 to 230.000 in 1900. In 1850, Christiania overtook Bergen and became the most populous city in the country. Christiania expanded its industry from 1840, most importantly around Akerselva . There was a spectacular building boom during

8875-438: The area, most likely related to the migration of the reindeer. Ancient trails cross the plateau, linking western and eastern Norway. One example is the "Nordmannsslepa" linking Eidfjord and Veggli in the Numedal valley with Hol and Uvdal. It is still a key transit route between Oslo and Bergen . The Bergen Line and the main Highway 7 cross the plateau. Hardangervidda is accessible all year round. June/July to September/October

9000-428: The capital of the independent Kingdom of Norway, when the union with Denmark was dissolved and replaced by a personal union with Sweden . Several state institutions were established and the city's role as a capital initiated a period of rapidly increasing population. The government of this new state needed buildings for its expanding administration and institutions. Several important buildings and landmarks were erected in

9125-521: The city's economic development, especially before the Black Death. At the end of the 12th century, Hanseatic League traders from Rostock moved into the city and gained major influence in the city. On 25 July 1197, Sverre of Norway and his soldiers attacked Oslo from Hovedøya . During the Middle Ages , Oslo reached new heights during the reign of Haakon V of Norway (1299–1319). He

9250-543: The city's foreign trade in the 15th century. In 1380, Norway was the weaker part in a personal union with Denmark, and Oslo's role was reduced to that of provincial administrative centre, with the monarchs residing in Copenhagen . Over the years, fires destroyed significant parts of the city multiple times, as many of the city's buildings were built entirely of wood. After the fourteenth calamity, in 1624, which lasted for three days, Christian IV of Denmark decided that

9375-428: The city's population is small compared to most European capitals, it occupies an unusually large land area, of which two-thirds are protected areas of forests, hills and lakes. Its boundaries encompass many parks and open areas , giving it an airy and green appearance. Oslo has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification : Dfb ) or, if the original Köppen winter threshold −3 °C (27 °F)

9500-415: The early taxonomists. Similarly, working on museum collections where skins were often faded and in poor states of preservation, early taxonomists could not readily perceive differences in coat patterns that are consistent within a subspecies, but variable among them. Geist calls these "nuptial" characteristics: sexually selected characters that are highly conserved and diagnostic among subspecies. Towards

9625-707: The end of the 19th century, national museums began sending out biological exploration expeditions and collections accumulated. Taxonomists, usually working for the museums, began naming subspecies more rigorously, based on statistical differences in detailed cranial, dental and skeletal measurements than antlers and pelage, supplemented by better knowledge of differences in ecology and behavior. From 1898 to 1937, mammalogists named 12 new species (other than barren-ground and woodland, which had been named earlier) of caribou in Canada and Alaska, and three new species and nine new subspecies in Eurasia, each properly described according to

9750-604: The evolution" of Rangifer species and other Arctic and sub-Arctic species. Isolation of tundra-adapted species Rangifer in Last Glacial Maximum refugia during the last glacial – the Wisconsin glaciation in North America and the Weichselian glaciation in Eurasia – shaped "intraspecific genetic variability " particularly between the North American and Eurasian parts of the Arctic . Reindeer / caribou ( Rangifer ) are in

9875-495: The evolving rules of zoological nomenclature, with type localities designated and type specimens deposited in museums (see table in Species and subspecies below). In the mid-20th century, as definitions of "species" evolved, mammalogists in Europe and North America made all Rangifer species conspecific with R. tarandus , and synonymized most of the subspecies. Alexander William Francis Banfield 's often-cited A Revision of

10000-465: The extinct caribou Torontoceros [Rangifer] hypogaeus , had features (robust and short pedicles, smooth antler surface, and high position of second tine) that relate it to forest caribou. Humans started hunting reindeer in both the Mesolithic and Neolithic Periods, and humans are today the main predator in many areas. Norway and Greenland have unbroken traditions of hunting wild reindeer from

10125-463: The fastest growing major city in Europe at the time. This growth stems for the most part from international immigration and related high birth rates, but also from intra-national migration. By 2010 the immigrant population in the city was growing somewhat faster than the Norwegian population, and in the city proper this had become more than 25% of the total population if the children of immigrant parents were included. The municipality of Oslo has

10250-540: The females. Their bez tines are set low, just above the brow tine, which is vertically flattened to protect the eyes while the buck "threshes" low brush, a courtship display. The low bez tines help the wide flat brow tines dig craters in the hard-packed tundra snow for forage, for which reason brow tines are often called "shovels" in North America and "ice tines" in Europe. The differences in antler architecture reflect fundamental differences in ecology and behavior, and in turn deep divisions in ancestry that were not apparent to

10375-399: The forest. There are two major forests bordering the city: Østmarka (literally "Eastern Forest", on the eastern perimeter of the city), and the very large Nordmarka (literally "Northern Forest", stretching from the northern perimeter of the city deep into the hinterland). The lake's altitude above sea level is 183 metres. The water is in a popular hiking area. Near the water itself, it

10500-706: The former R. t. groenlandicus (now R. t. arcticus ). R. t. granti was lost in the oblivion of invalid taxonomy until Alaskan researchers sampled some small, pale caribou from the western end of the Alaska Peninsula, their range enclosing the type locality designated by Allen (1902) and found them to be genetically distinct from all other caribou in Alaska. Thus, granti was rediscovered, its range restricted to that originally described. Oslo Oslo ( Norwegian: [ˈʊ̂ʂlʊ] or [ˈʊ̂slʊ, ˈʊ̀ʂlʊ] ; Southern Sami : Oslove )

10625-770: The four western Canadian montane ecotypes are not woodland caribou: they share a common ancestor with modern barren-ground caribou / tundra reindeer, but distantly, having diverged > 60,000 years ago — before the modern ecotypes had evolved their cold- and darkness-adapted physiologies and mass-migration and aggregation behaviors (see Evolution above). Before Banfield (1961), taxonomists using cranial, dental and skeletal measurements had unequivocally allied these western montane ecotypes with barren-ground caribou, naming them (as in Osgood 1909 Murie, 1935 and Anderson 1946, among others) R. t. stonei , R. t. montanus , R. t. fortidens and R. t. osborni , respectively, and this phylogeny

10750-619: The fringes of the Rocky Mountain and Laurentide ice sheets as far south as northern Alabama ; and in Sangamonian deposits (~100,000 years BP) from western Canada. A R. t. pearyi -sized caribou occupied Greenland before and after the LGM and persisted in a relict enclave in northeastern Greenland until it went extinct about 1900 (see discussion of R. t. eogroenlandicus below). Archaeological excavations showed that larger barren-ground-sized caribou appeared in western Greenland about 4,000 years ago. The late Valerius Geist (1998) dates

10875-536: The genus Rangifer as R. grœnlandicus . It went back and forth as a full species or subspecies of the barren-ground caribou ( R. arcticus ) or a subspecies of the tundra reindeer ( R. tarandus ), but always as the Greenland reindeer / caribou. Taxonomists consistently documented morphological differences between Greenland and other caribou / reindeer in cranial measurements, dentition, antler architecture, etc. Then Banfield (1961) in his famously flawed revision, gave

11000-498: The invasion, most notably the sinking of the Blücher , delayed the occupation of Oslo for several hours which allowed King Haakon to escape the city. Oslo remained occupied throughout the war until Germany capitulated in 1945. During this time, the occupying troops were harried by saboteurs in acts of resistance. On 31 December 1944, allied bombers missed their intended target and hit a tram, resulting in 79 civilian deaths. During

11125-485: The larger caribou that appeared in Greenland 4,000 years ago originated from Baffin Island (itself unique; see Taxonomy above), a reconstruction of LGM glacial retreat and caribou advance (Yannic et al. 2013) shows colonization by NAL lineage caribou more likely. Their PCA and tree diagrams show Greenland caribou clustering outside of the Beringian-Eurasian lineage. The scientific name R. t. granti has

11250-408: The largest in the world, with some 15,000 animals recorded in 1996 and around 8,000 in 2008. They migrate across the plateau during the year, moving from their winter grazing lands on the east side of the Hardangervidda, where they graze on lichen , to their breeding grounds in the more fertile west of the plateau. The varying climate of the plateau has a marked effect on the flora, which is richer on

11375-412: The last decades of the 19th century, with many new apartment buildings and renewal of the city center, but the boom collapsed in 1899. In 1877 the city was renamed Kristiania . The city and municipality used the name Kristiania until 1 January 1925 when the original name of Oslo was restored . This was because Norway became fully independent in 1905, and Norwegians argued that a name memorializing

11500-434: The last overnight freeze (low below 0 °C, 32.0 °F) in spring is 23 April and average date for first freeze in autumn is 17 October giving a frost-free season of 176 days (1981–2010 average for Blindern). Oslo sits right on the border between hardiness zones 7a and 7b. Oslo Gardermoen airport is located 35 km northeast of Oslo and has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: Dfb ) bordering on

11625-410: The modern, vastly enlarged Oslo municipality. At the time, Aker was a mostly affluent, green suburban community, and the merger was unpopular in Aker. Other suburbs, such as Lambertseter , began to be developed in the 1950s. Aker Brygge was constructed on the site of the former shipyard , Akers Mekaniske Verksted , from 1982 to 1998. Norway was invaded by Germany on 9 April 1940. Efforts to stop

11750-649: The mountains of Norway, notably in Hardangervidda . In Sweden there are approximately 250,000 reindeer in herds managed by Sámi villages. Russia manages 19 herds of Siberian tundra reindeer ( R. t. sibiricus ) that total about 940,000. The Taimyr herd of Siberian tundra reindeer is the largest wild reindeer herd in the world, varying between 400,000 and 1,000,000; it is a metapopulation consisting of several subpopulations — some of which are phenotypically different — with different migration routes and calving areas. The Kamchatkan reindeer ( R. t. phylarchus ),

11875-410: The municipal authorities in 1897, although 'Christiania' was also used. In 1925, the city, after incorporating the village retaining its former name, was renamed 'Oslo'. In 1948, Oslo merged with Aker , a municipality which surrounded the capital and which was 27 times larger, thus creating the modern, much larger Oslo municipality. Oslo is the economic and governmental centre of Norway. The city

12000-550: The name groenlandicus to all the barren-ground caribou in North America, Greenland included, because groenlandicus pre-dates Richardson's R. arctus . However, because genetic data shows the Greenland caribou to be the most distantly related of any caribou to all the others (genetic distance, FST = 44%, whereas most cervid (deer family) species have a genetic distance of 2% to 5% )--as well as behavioral and morphological differences—a recent revision returned it to species status as R. groenlandicus . Although it has been assumed that

12125-543: The name of a large farm at Bjørvika , while the meaning of that name is disputed. Modern linguists generally interpret the original Óslo , Áslo or Ánslo as either "meadow at the foot of a hill" or "meadow consecrated to the Gods ", with both considered equally likely. Erroneously, it was once assumed that Oslo meant "the mouth of the Lo river", a supposed previous name for the river Alna . Not only has no evidence been found of

12250-429: The north and east, wide forested hills ( Marka ) rise above the city giving the location the shape of a giant amphitheatre . The urban municipality ( bykommune ) of Oslo and county ( fylke ) of Oslo are two parts of the same entity, making Oslo the only city in Norway where two administrative levels are integrated. Of Oslo's total area, 130 km (50 sq mi) is built-up and 9.6 km (3.7 sq mi)

12375-626: The northern states of the contiguous United States from Maine to Washington . Boreal woodland caribou have disappeared from most of their original southern range and were designated as Threatened in 2002 by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). Environment and Climate Change Canada reported in 2011 that there were approximately 34,000 boreal woodland caribou in 51 ranges remaining in Canada (Environment Canada, 2011b), although those numbers included montane populations classified by Harding (2022) into subspecies of

12500-577: The northernmost end of the Oslofjord . The fjord , which is nearly bisected by the Nesodden peninsula opposite Oslo, lies to the south; in all other directions Oslo is surrounded by green hills and mountains. There are 40 islands within the city limits, the largest being Malmøya (0.56 km or 0.22 sq mi), and scores more around the Oslofjord. Oslo has 343 lakes, the largest being Maridalsvannet (3.91 km or 1.51 sq mi). This

12625-510: The old city should not be rebuilt again. His men built a network of roads on the other side of the bay in Akershagen near Akershus Castle . He demanded that all citizens move their shops and workplaces to the newly built city of "Christiania", named in his honor. The part of the city built starting in 1624 is now often called Kvadraturen  [ Wikidata ] because of its orthogonal layout in regular, square blocks. Anatomigården

12750-469: The plateau is at the top of the Hardangerjøkulen glacier, which reaches a height of 1,863 m (6,112 ft). The landscape of the Hardangervidda is characterised by barren, treeless moorland interrupted by numerous pools, lakes, rivers and streams. There are significant differences between the west side, which is dominated by rocky terrain and expanses of bare rock, and the east side, which

12875-415: The previously named subspecies distributions, without naming them as such, plus some ecotypes. Ecotypes are not phylogenetically based and cannot substitute for taxonomy. Meanwhile, genetic data continued to accumulate, revealing sufficiently deep divisions to easily separate Rangifer back into six previously named species and to resurrect several previously named subspecies. Molecular data showed that

13000-537: The recent revision (see Reindeer#Taxonomy below). Reindeer / caribou ( Rangifer ) vary in size from the smallest, the Svalbard reindeer ( R. ( t. ) platyrhynchus ), to the largest, Osborn's caribou ( R. t. osborni ). They also vary in coat color and antler architecture. The North American range of caribou extends from Alaska through the Yukon , the Northwest Territories and Nunavut throughout

13125-428: The recent revision): In North America, R. t. caboti , R. t. caribou , R. t. dawsoni , R. t. groenlandicus , R. t. osborni , R. t. pearyi , and R. t. terranovae ; and in Eurasia, R. t. tarandus , R. t. buskensis (called R. t. valentinae in Europe; see below), R. t. phylarchus , R. t. pearsoni , R. t. sibiricus and R. t. platyrhynchus . These subspecies were retained in the 2011 replacement work Handbook of

13250-409: The reign of King Christian IV , a new city was built closer to Akershus Fortress and named Christiania in honour of the king. It became a municipality ( formannskapsdistrikt ) on 1 January 1838. The city functioned as the capital of Norway during the 1814–1905 union between Sweden and Norway . From 1877, the city's name was spelled Kristiania in government usage, a spelling that was adopted by

13375-414: The river became the symbol of the stable and consistent economic and social divide of the city into an East End and a West End ; the labourers' neighbourhoods lie on both sides of the river, and the divide in reality follows Uelands street a bit further west. River Alna flows through Groruddalen, Oslo's major suburb and industrial area. The highest point is Kirkeberget, at 629 m (2,064 ft). Although

13500-433: The smallest, the Svalbard reindeer ( R. ( t. ) platyrhynchus ), to the largest, Osborn's caribou ( R. t. osborni ). Although reindeer are quite numerous, some species and subspecies are in decline and considered vulnerable . They are unique among deer (Cervidae) in that females may have antlers , although the prevalence of antlered females varies by subspecies. Reindeer are the only successfully semi-domesticated deer on

13625-498: The subfamily Odocoileinae , along with roe deer ( Capreolus ), Eurasian elk / moose ( Alces ), and water deer ( Hydropotes ). These antlered cervids split from the horned ruminants Bos (cattle and yaks), Ovis (sheep) and Capra (goats) about 36 million years ago. The Eurasian clade of Odocoileinae (Capreolini, Hydropotini and Alcini) split from the New World tribes of Capreolinae ( Odocoileini and Rangiferini) in

13750-430: The subspecies level; that Finnish forest reindeer ( R. t. fennicus ) clustered well apart from both wild and domestic tundra reindeer and that boreal woodland caribou ( R. t. caribou ) were separable from all others. Meanwhile, archaeological evidence was accumulating that Eurasian forest reindeer descended from an extinct forest-adapted reindeer and not from tundra reindeer (see Evolution above); since they do not share

13875-626: The terms reindeer and caribou for essentially the same animal can cause confusion, but the ICUN clearly delineates the issue: "Reindeer is the European name for the species of Rangifer, while in North America, Rangifer species are known as Caribou." The word reindeer is an anglicized version of the Old Norse words hreinn ("reindeer") and dýr ("animal") and has nothing to do with reins. The word caribou comes through French, from

14000-412: The total population of this agglomeration was 1,546,706 in 2023. The city centre is situated at the end of the Oslofjord , from which point the city sprawls out in three distinct "corridors"—inland north-eastwards, and southwards along both sides of the fjord—which gives the urbanized area a shape reminiscent of an upside-down reclining "Y" (on maps, satellite pictures, or from high above the city). To

14125-499: The tundra and into the taiga. Eurasian mountain reindeer ( R. t. tarandus ) are close to North American caribou genetically and visually, but with sufficient differences to warrant division into two species. The unique, insular Svalbard reindeer inhabits the Svalbard Archipelago . The Finnish forest reindeer ( R. t. fennicus ) is spottily distributed in the coniferous forest zones from Finland to east of Lake Baikal :

14250-947: The uniformly dark, small-maned type with the frontally emphasized, flat-beamed antlers", is "scattered thinly along the southern rim of North American caribou distribution". He affirms that the "true woodland caribou is very rare, in very great difficulties and requires the most urgent of attention." In 2011, noting that the former classifications of Rangifer tarandus , either with prevailing taxonomy on subspecies, designations based on ecotypes , or natural population groupings, failed to capture "the variability of caribou across their range in Canada" needed for effective subspecies conservation and management, COSEWIC developed Designatable Unit (DU) attribution, an adaptation of "evolutionary significant units". The 12 designatable units for caribou in Canada (that is, excluding Alaska and Greenland) based on ecology, behavior and, importantly, genetics (but excluding morphology and archaeology) essentially followed

14375-494: The various forms of the Woodland Caribou are so great in almost every respect that no detailed comparison is necessary. ...According to Mr. Stone, Rangifer granti inhabits the " barren land of Alaska Peninsula, ranging well up into the mountains in summer, but descending to the lower levels in winter, generally feeding on the low flat lands near the coast and in the foothills...As regards cranial characters no comparison

14500-570: The west. At night on 26 August 2016, 323 wild reindeers, including 70 calves, were killed by lightning during a storm, when they stood in the grasses of the Hardangervidda plateau. Part of the second episode of The Future is Wild was filmed here. Reindeer See text , traditionally 1, but possibly up to 6 The reindeer or caribou ( Rangifer tarandus ) is a species of deer with circumpolar distribution , native to Arctic , subarctic , tundra , boreal , and mountainous regions of Northern Europe, Siberia, and North America. It

14625-503: The wetter west side than in the drier east; much of the plateau is covered by coarse grasses , mosses (especially sphagnum ) and lichens. In the Holocene climatic optimum ( Stone Age ) 9000 – 5000 years ago, the regional climate was warmer, and large parts of Hardangervidda were wooded; pine logs can still be found preserved in bogs well above today's treeline. With the predicted warming , Hardangervidda could again be largely wooded ( [1] ). The national park has two visitor centres:

14750-480: The whole city, while the suburb was renamed "Gamlebyen" , literally "the Old town", to avoid confusion. The Old Town is an area within the administrative district Gamle Oslo . The previous names are reflected in street names like Oslo gate (Oslo street) and Oslo hospital. The origin of the name Oslo has been the subject of much debate. It is nigh-certainly derived from Old Norse and was—in all probability—originally

14875-546: The world for living expenses after Tokyo . In 2013, Oslo tied with the Australian city of Melbourne as the fourth most expensive city in the world, according to the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU)'s Worldwide Cost of Living study. Oslo was ranked as the 24th most liveable city in the world by Monocle magazine. Oslo's population was increasing at record rates during the early 2000s, making it

15000-463: Was "not able to find diagnostic features that could segregate this form from the western barren ground type." But Skal 1982 had included specimens from the eastern end of the Alaska Peninsula and the Kenai Peninsula , the range of the larger Stone's caribou. Later, geneticists comparing barren-ground caribou of Alaska with those of mainland Canada found little difference and they all became

15125-920: Was confirmed by genetic analysis. DNA also revealed three unnamed clades that, based on genetic distance, genetic divergence and shared vs. private haplotypes and alleles , together with ecological and behavioral differences, may justify separation at the subspecies level: the Atlantic- Gaspésie caribou (COSEWIC DU11), an eastern montane ecotype of the boreal woodland caribou, and the Baffin Island caribou. Neither one of these clades has yet been formally described or named. Jenkins et al. (2012) said that "[Baffin Island] caribou are unique compared to other Barrenground herds, as they do not overwinter in forested habitat, nor do all caribou undertake long seasonal migrations to calving areas." It also shares

15250-425: Was even the sunniest year on record with 2133 sunhours. On 27 July 2018 , the temperature in Oslo rose to 34.6 °C (94.3 °F), the hottest recorded since 1937, when weather recordings started at Blindern. In January, on average three out of four days are below freezing (0 °C [32 °F]) and one out of four days is colder than −10 °C (14 °F) (1961–1990). The coldest temperature recorded

15375-462: Was later replaced by R. constantini , which was adapted for grasslands, in a second immigration 19,000–20,000 years ago when the LGM turned its forest habitats into tundra, while fennicus survived in isolation in southwestern Europe. R. constantini was then replaced by modern tundra / barren-ground caribou adapted to extreme cold, probably in Beringia, before dispersing west ( R. t. tarandus in

15500-521: Was selected as the senior synonym to R. t. valentinae Flerov, 1933, in Mammal Species of the World but Russian authors do not recognize Millais and Millais' articles in a hunting travelogue, The Gun at Home and Abroad , seem short of a taxonomic authority. The scientific name groenlandicus is fraught with problems. Edwards (1743) illustrated and claimed to have seen a male specimen ("head of perfect horns...") from Greenland and said that

15625-594: Was the first king to reside permanently in the city, and it has been regarded as the capital city of Norway since his reign. He also started the construction of the Akershus Fortress and the Oslo Kongsgård . The Black Death came to Norway in 1349 and, like other cities in Europe, the city suffered greatly. The churches' earnings from their land dropped so much that the Hanseatic traders dominated

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