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148-435: The term is employed in various disciplines, including music, physics, acoustics , electronic power transmission, radio technology, and other fields. For example, if the fundamental frequency is 50  Hz , a common AC power supply frequency, the frequencies of the first three higher harmonics are 100 Hz (2nd harmonic), 150 Hz (3rd harmonic), 200 Hz (4th harmonic) and any addition of waves with these frequencies

296-466: A fiddle , is a wooden chordophone , and is the smallest, and thus highest-pitched instrument ( soprano ) in regular use in the violin family . Smaller violin-type instruments exist, including the violino piccolo and the pochette , but these are virtually unused. Most violins have a hollow wooden body, and commonly have four strings (sometimes five ), usually tuned in perfect fifths with notes G3, D4, A4, E5, and are most commonly played by drawing

444-596: A Bachelor's degree or higher qualification. Some possess a degree in acoustics, while others enter the discipline via studies in fields such as physics or engineering . Much work in acoustics requires a good grounding in Mathematics and science . Many acoustic scientists work in research and development. Some conduct basic research to advance our knowledge of the perception (e.g. hearing , psychoacoustics or neurophysiology ) of speech , music and noise . Other acoustic scientists advance understanding of how sound

592-732: A bow across the strings. The violin can also be played by plucking the strings with the fingers ( pizzicato ) and, in specialized cases, by striking the strings with the wooden side of the bow ( col legno ). Violins are important instruments in a wide variety of musical genres. They are most prominent in the Western classical tradition , both in ensembles (from chamber music to orchestras ) and as solo instruments. Violins are also important in many varieties of folk music , including country music , bluegrass music , and in jazz . Electric violins with solid bodies and piezoelectric pickups are used in some forms of rock music and jazz fusion , with

740-407: A chinrest , which may attach directly over, or to the left of, the tailpiece . A distinctive feature of a violin body is its hourglass-like shape and the arching of its top and back. The hourglass shape comprises two upper bouts, two lower bouts, and two concave C-bouts at the waist , providing clearance for the bow . The "voice" or sound of a violin depends on its shape, the wood it is made from,

888-406: A shift, and effective shifting maintaining accurate intonation and a smooth legato (connected) sound is a key element of technique at all levels. Often a "guide finger" is used; the last finger to play a note in the old position continuously lightly touches the string during the course of the shift to end up on its correct place in the new position. In elementary shifting exercises the "guide finger"

1036-521: A string quartet or a string orchestra , the strings typically "sweeten" their tuning to suit the key they are playing in. When playing with an instrument tuned to equal temperament , such as a piano , skilled violinists adjust their tuning to match the equal temperament of the piano to avoid discordant notes. The fingers are conventionally numbered 1 (index) through 4 (little finger) in music notation , such as sheet music and etude books. Especially in instructional editions of violin music, numbers over

1184-436: A "flutelike, silvery quality" that can be highly effective as a special color or tone color ( timbre ) when used and heard in orchestration . It is unusual to encounter natural harmonics higher than the fifth partial on any stringed instrument except the double bass, on account of its much longer strings. Occasionally a score will call for an artificial harmonic , produced by playing an overtone on an already stopped string. As

1332-475: A Guarneri. "The Messiah" or "Le Messie" (also known as the "Salabue") made by Antonio Stradivari in 1716 remains pristine. It is now located in the Ashmolean Museum of Oxford . The most famous violin makers ( luthiers ) between the 16th century and the 18th century include: Significant changes occurred in the construction of the violin in the 18th century, particularly a longer neck which

1480-504: A Stradivari violin is £ 9.8 million ( US$ 15.9 million at that time), when the instrument known as the Lady Blunt was sold by Tarisio Auctions in an online auction on June 20, 2011. A violin generally consists of a spruce top (the soundboard , also known as the top plate , table , or belly ), maple ribs and back, two endblocks, a neck , a bridge , a soundpost, four strings, and various fittings, optionally including

1628-751: A building from earthquakes, or measuring how structure-borne sound moves through buildings. Ultrasonics deals with sounds at frequencies too high to be heard by humans. Specialisms include medical ultrasonics (including medical ultrasonography), sonochemistry , ultrasonic testing , material characterisation and underwater acoustics ( sonar ). Underwater acoustics is the scientific study of natural and man-made sounds underwater. Applications include sonar to locate submarines , underwater communication by whales , climate change monitoring by measuring sea temperatures acoustically, sonic weapons , and marine bioacoustics. Violin The violin , sometimes referred as

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1776-452: A colored silk wrapping at both ends, for identification of the string (e.g., G string, D string, A string or E string) and to provide friction against the pegs. The tapered pegs allow friction to be increased or decreased by the player applying appropriate pressure along the axis of the peg while turning it. Strings were first made of sheep gut (commonly known as catgut , which despite the name, did not come from cats), or simply gut, which

1924-572: A definite mathematical structure. The wave equation emerged in a number of contexts, including the propagation of sound in air. In the nineteenth century the major figures of mathematical acoustics were Helmholtz in Germany, who consolidated the field of physiological acoustics, and Lord Rayleigh in England, who combined the previous knowledge with his own copious contributions to the field in his monumental work The Theory of Sound (1877). Also in

2072-443: A fingered A on the D string against the open A string), giving a ringing sort of "fiddling" sound. Playing an open string simultaneously with an identical stopped note can also be called for when more volume is required, especially in orchestral playing. Some classical violin parts have notes for which the composer requests the violinist to play an open string, because of the specific sonority created by an open string. Double stopping

2220-456: A fixed-pitch instrument such as a piano or accordion, the violin tunes to the corresponding note on that instrument rather than to any other tuning reference. The oboe is generally the instrument used to tune orchestras where violins are present since its sound is penetrating and can be heard over the other woodwinds.) The other strings are then tuned against each other in intervals of perfect fifths by bowing them in pairs. A minutely higher tuning

2368-406: A guitar string or a column of air open at both ends (as with the metallic modern orchestral transverse flute ). Wind instruments whose air column is open at only one end, such as trumpets and clarinets , also produce partials resembling harmonics. However they only produce partials matching the odd harmonics—at least in theory. In practical use, no real acoustic instrument behaves as perfectly as

2516-472: A harmonic series (such as with most strings and winds) rather than being inharmonic partials (such as with most pitched percussion instruments), it is also convenient to call the component partials "harmonics", but not strictly correct, because harmonics are numbered the same even when missing, while partials and overtones are only counted when present. This chart demonstrates how the three types of names (partial, overtone, and harmonic) are counted (assuming that

2664-551: A key element of mating rituals or for marking territories. Art, craft, science and technology have provoked one another to advance the whole, as in many other fields of knowledge. Robert Bruce Lindsay 's "Wheel of Acoustics" is a well accepted overview of the various fields in acoustics. The word "acoustic" is derived from the Greek word ἀκουστικός ( akoustikos ), meaning "of or for hearing, ready to hear" and that from ἀκουστός ( akoustos ), "heard, audible", which in turn derives from

2812-414: A metal screw that moves a lever attached to the string end. They permit very small pitch adjustments much more easily than the pegs. Turning a fine tuner clockwise causes the pitch to become sharper (as the string is under more tension), and turning it counterclockwise, the pitch becomes flatter (as the string is under less tension). Fine tuners on all four of the strings are very helpful when using those with

2960-505: A multiple of 3, will not have nodes at these points. These other characteristic modes will be vibrating at the positions 1 3 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{3}}} L and 2 3 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {2}{3}}} L . If the player gently touches one of these positions, then these other characteristic modes will be suppressed. The tonal harmonics from these other characteristic modes will then also be suppressed. Consequently,

3108-464: A number of reasons. Hide glue is capable of making a thinner joint than most other glues. It is reversible (brittle enough to crack with carefully applied force and removable with hot water) when disassembly is needed. Since fresh hide glue sticks to old hide glue, more original wood can be preserved when repairing a joint. (More modern glues must be cleaned off entirely for the new joint to be sound, which generally involves scraping off some wood along with

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3256-438: A particular technical challenge, for two reasons. Firstly, the difference in location of different notes becomes much narrower in high positions, making the notes more challenging to locate and in some cases to distinguish by ear. Secondly, the much shorter sounding length of the string in very high positions is a challenge for the right arm and bow in sounding the instrument effectively. The finer (and more expensive) an instrument,

3404-518: A performance technique, it is accomplished by using two fingers on the fingerboard, the first to shorten the string to the desired fundamental, with the second touching the node corresponding to the appropriate harmonic. Harmonics may be either used in or considered as the basis of just intonation systems. Composer Arnold Dreyblatt is able to bring out different harmonics on the single string of his modified double bass by slightly altering his unique bowing technique halfway between hitting and bowing

3552-400: A result of varying auditory stimulus which can in turn affect the way one thinks, feels, or even behaves. This correlation can be viewed in normal, everyday situations in which listening to an upbeat or uptempo song can cause one's foot to start tapping or a slower song can leave one feeling calm and serene. In a deeper biological look at the phenomenon of psychoacoustics, it was discovered that

3700-405: A rock concert. The central stage in the acoustical process is wave propagation. This falls within the domain of physical acoustics. In fluids , sound propagates primarily as a pressure wave . In solids, mechanical waves can take many forms including longitudinal waves , transverse waves and surface waves . Acoustics looks first at the pressure levels and frequencies in the sound wave and how

3848-475: A screw adjuster tightens or loosens the hair. Just forward of the frog, a leather thumb cushion (called the grip) and a winding protect the stick and provide a secure hold for the player's hand. Traditional windings are of wire (often silver or plated silver), silk, or baleen ("whalebone", now substituted by alternating strips of tan and black plastic.) Some fiberglass student bows employ a plastic sleeve as both grip and winding. Bow hair traditionally comes from

3996-616: A semitone higher, and the Mystery Sonatas by Biber , in which each movement has different scordatura tuning. In Indian classical music and Indian light music, the violin is likely to be tuned to D ♯ –A ♯ –D ♯ –A ♯ in the South Indian style. As there is no concept of absolute pitch in Indian classical music, musicians can use any convenient tuning to maintain these relative pitch intervals between

4144-415: A sign of an inferior instrument. The back and ribs are typically made of maple , most often with a matching striped figure , referred to as flame , fiddleback , or tiger stripe . The neck is usually maple with a flamed figure compatible with that of the ribs and back. It carries the fingerboard , typically made of ebony, but often some other wood stained or painted black on cheaper instruments. Ebony

4292-738: A simple whole number ratio with the fundamental frequency. (The fundamental frequency is the reciprocal of the longest time period of the collection of vibrations in some single periodic phenomenon.) Harmonics may be singly produced [on stringed instruments] (1) by varying the point of contact with the bow, or (2) by slightly pressing the string at the nodes, or divisions of its aliquot parts (   1   2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\ 1\ }{2}}} ,   1   3 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\ 1\ }{3}}} ,   1   4 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\ 1\ }{4}}} , etc.). (1) In

4440-417: A small frame may use a so-called 7 ⁄ 8 size violin instead of a full-size instrument. Sometimes called a lady's violin , these instruments are slightly shorter than a full size violin, but tend to be high-quality instruments capable of producing a sound comparable to that of fine full size violins. The sizes of 5-string violins may differ from the normal 4-string. The instrument which corresponds to

4588-456: A sound wave to or from an electric signal. The most widely used transduction principles are electromagnetism , electrostatics and piezoelectricity . The transducers in most common loudspeakers (e.g. woofers and tweeters ), are electromagnetic devices that generate waves using a suspended diaphragm driven by an electromagnetic voice coil , sending off pressure waves. Electret microphones and condenser microphones employ electrostatics—as

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4736-413: A specific sound especially in historically informed performance of Baroque music . Strings have a limited lifetime. Eventually, when oil, dirt, corrosion, and rosin accumulate, the mass of the string can become uneven along its length. Apart from obvious things, such as the winding of a string coming undone from wear, players generally change a string when it no longer plays "true" (with good intonation on

4884-404: A sponge and an elastic band for younger players who struggle with shoulder rests). The jaw and the shoulder must hold the violin firmly enough to allow it to remain stable when the left hand goes from a high position (a high pitched note far up on the fingerboard) to a low one (nearer to the pegbox). In the Indian posture, the stability of the violin is guaranteed by its scroll resting on the side of

5032-464: A steel core, and some players use them with synthetic strings. Since modern E strings are steel, a fine tuner is nearly always fitted for that string. Fine tuners are not used with gut strings, which are more elastic than steel or synthetic-core strings and do not respond adequately to the very small movements of fine tuners. To tune a violin, the A string is first tuned to a standard pitch (usually A=440  Hz ). (When accompanying or playing with

5180-441: A string is bowed or plucked without any finger stopping it, it is said to be an open string . This gives a different sound from a stopped string, since the string vibrates more freely at the nut than under a finger. Further, it is impossible to use vibrato fully on an open string (though a partial effect can be achieved by stopping a note an octave up on an adjacent string and vibrating that, which introduces an element of vibrato into

5328-407: A string sounds the note C when plucked, a string twice as long will sound a C an octave lower. In one system of musical tuning , the tones in between are then given by 16:9 for D, 8:5 for E, 3:2 for F, 4:3 for G, 6:5 for A, and 16:15 for B, in ascending order. Aristotle (384–322 BC) understood that sound consisted of compressions and rarefactions of air which "falls upon and strikes the air which

5476-507: A violin are usually made from different types of wood . Violins can be strung with gut , Perlon or other synthetic, or steel strings. A person who makes or repairs violins is called a luthier or violinmaker. One who makes or repairs bows is called an archetier or bowmaker . The word "violin" was first used in English in the 1570s. The word "violin" comes from "Italian violino , [a] diminutive of viola . The term "viola" comes from

5624-438: A wave comparable to a water wave extended to three dimensions, which, when interrupted by obstructions, would flow back and break up following waves. He described the ascending seats in ancient theaters as designed to prevent this deterioration of sound and also recommended bronze vessels (echea) of appropriate sizes be placed in theaters to resonate with the fourth, fifth and so on, up to the double octave, in order to resonate with

5772-465: A way of echolocation in the caves. In archaeology, acoustic sounds and rituals directly correlate as specific sounds were meant to bring ritual participants closer to a spiritual awakening. Parallels can also be drawn between cave wall paintings and the acoustic properties of the cave; they are both dynamic. Because archaeoacoustics is a fairly new archaeological subject, acoustic sound is still being tested in these prehistoric sites today. Aeroacoustics

5920-465: Is Camille Saint-Saëns ' Danse Macabre , where the solo violin's E string is tuned down to E ♭ to impart an eerie dissonance to the composition. Other examples are the third movement of Contrasts , by Béla Bartók , where the E string is tuned down to E ♭ and the G tuned to a G ♯ , Niccolò Paganini 's First Violin Concerto , where all four strings are designated to be tuned

6068-495: Is 356 mm (14.0 in), smaller in some 17th-century models. A 3 ⁄ 4 violin's body length is 335 mm (13.2 in), and a 1 ⁄ 2 size is 310 mm (12.2 in). With the violin's closest family member, the viola, size is specified as body length in inches or centimeters rather than fractional sizes. A full-size viola averages 40 cm (16 in). However, each individual adult will determine which size of viola to use. Occasionally, an adult with

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6216-513: Is affected as it moves through environments, e.g. underwater acoustics , architectural acoustics or structural acoustics . Other areas of work are listed under subdisciplines below. Acoustic scientists work in government, university and private industry laboratories. Many go on to work in Acoustical Engineering . Some positions, such as Faculty (academic staff) require a Doctor of Philosophy . Archaeoacoustics , also known as

6364-410: Is angled more toward the back of the instrument than in earlier examples, heavier strings, and a heavier bass bar. The majority of old instruments have undergone these modifications, and hence are in a significantly different state than when they left the hands of their makers, doubtless with differences in sound and response. But it is in their present (modified) condition that these instruments have set

6512-425: Is called overblowing . The extended technique of playing multiphonics also produces harmonics. On string instruments it is possible to produce very pure sounding notes, called harmonics or flageolets by string players, which have an eerie quality, as well as being high in pitch. Harmonics may be used to check at a unison the tuning of strings that are not tuned to the unison. For example, lightly fingering

6660-416: Is concerned with noise and vibration caused by railways, road traffic, aircraft, industrial equipment and recreational activities. The main aim of these studies is to reduce levels of environmental noise and vibration. Research work now also has a focus on the positive use of sound in urban environments: soundscapes and tranquility . Musical acoustics is the study of the physics of acoustic instruments;

6808-408: Is defined by ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013 as "(a) Science of sound , including its production, transmission, and effects, including biological and psychological effects. (b) Those qualities of a room that, together, determine its character with respect to auditory effects." The study of acoustics revolves around the generation, propagation and reception of mechanical waves and vibrations. The steps shown in

6956-464: Is generally thought to be the maximum number of strings practical on a bowed string instrument; with more than seven strings, it would be impossible to play any particular inner string individually with the bow. Violins with seven strings are very rare. The extra strings on such violins typically are lower in pitch than the G-string; these strings are usually tuned (going from the highest added string to

7104-430: Is how our ears interpret sound. What we experience as "higher pitched" or "lower pitched" sounds are pressure vibrations having a higher or lower number of cycles per second. In a common technique of acoustic measurement, acoustic signals are sampled in time, and then presented in more meaningful forms such as octave bands or time frequency plots. Both of these popular methods are used to analyze sound and better understand

7252-424: Is largely determined by the skill of the player, who may easily play more than two octaves on a single string, and four octaves on the instrument as a whole. Position names are mostly used for the lower positions and in method books and etudes; for this reason, it is uncommon to hear references to anything higher than seventh position. The highest position, practically speaking, is 13th position. Very high positions are

7400-448: Is less well defined: E 7 , the E two octaves above the open string (which is tuned to E 5 ) may be considered a practical limit for orchestral violin parts, but it is often possible to play higher, depending on the length of the fingerboard and the skill of the violinist. Yet higher notes (up to C 8 ) can be sounded by stopping the string, reaching the limit of the fingerboard, and/or by using artificial harmonics . The arched shape,

7548-609: Is likely to be tuned (E–A–E–A) in Dastgah-h Esfahan or in Dastgāh-e Šur is (E–A–D–E) and (E–A–E–E), in Dastgāh-e Māhur is (E–A–D–A). In Arabic classical music, the A and E strings are lowered by a whole step , i.e. G–D–G–D. This is to ease playing Arabic maqams , especially those containing quarter tones . While most violins have four strings, there are violins with additional strings, some with as many as seven. Seven

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7696-628: Is next to it...", a very good expression of the nature of wave motion. On Things Heard , generally ascribed to Strato of Lampsacus , states that the pitch is related to the frequency of vibrations of the air and to the speed of sound. In about 20 BC, the Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius wrote a treatise on the acoustic properties of theaters including discussion of interference, echoes, and reverberation—the beginnings of architectural acoustics . In Book V of his De architectura ( The Ten Books of Architecture ) Vitruvius describes sound as

7844-425: Is often indicated in the music by the marking, for example, sul G or IV (a Roman numeral indicating to play on the fourth string; by convention, the strings are numbered from thinnest, highest pitch (I) to the lowest pitch (IV)). Even without an explicit instructions in the score, an advanced violinist will use her/his discretion and artistic sensibility to select which string to play specific notes or passages. If

7992-419: Is often voiced while gliding up or down the string, so the player can establish correct placement by ear. Outside of these exercises it should rarely be audible (unless the performer is consciously applying a portamento effect for expressive reasons). In the course of a shift in low positions, the thumb of the left hand moves up or down the neck of the instrument so as to remain in the same position relative to

8140-427: Is periodic at 50 Hz. An n characteristic mode, for n > 1, will have nodes that are not vibrating. For example, the 3rd characteristic mode will have nodes at 1 3 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{3}}} L and 2 3 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {2}{3}}} L , where L is the length of the string. In fact, each n characteristic mode, for n not

8288-456: Is played with the fourth finger on the E-string, sounding a B5. Moving the hand up the neck, the first finger takes the place of the second finger, bringing the player into second position . Letting the first finger take the first-position place of the third finger brings the player to third position , and so on. A change of positions, with its associated movement of the hand, is referred to as

8436-523: Is present in almost all aspects of modern society with the most obvious being the audio and noise control industries. Hearing is one of the most crucial means of survival in the animal world and speech is one of the most distinctive characteristics of human development and culture. Accordingly, the science of acoustics spreads across many facets of human society—music, medicine, architecture, industrial production, warfare and more. Likewise, animal species such as songbirds and frogs use sound and hearing as

8584-400: Is related to Old Norse fiðla , Middle Dutch vedele , Dutch vedel , Old High German fidula , German Fiedel , ' a fiddle ' ; all of uncertain origin." As to the origin of the word "fiddle", the "...usual suggestion, based on resemblance in sound and sense, is that it is from Medieval Latin vitula ." The earliest stringed instruments were mostly plucked (for example,

8732-460: Is seen in classical music which is imitating the drone of an organ (J. S. Bach, in his Partita in E for solo violin, achieved this), fiddling (e.g., Hoedown ) or where taking steps to avoid the open string is musically inappropriate (for instance in Baroque music where shifting position was less common). In quick passages of scales or arpeggios an open E string may simply be used for convenience if

8880-448: Is sometimes employed for solo playing to give the instrument a brighter sound; conversely, Baroque music is sometimes played using lower tunings to make the violin's sound more gentle. After tuning, the instrument's bridge may be examined to ensure that it is standing straight and centered between the inner nicks of the f-holes ; a crooked bridge may significantly affect the sound of an otherwise well-made violin. After extensive playing,

9028-416: Is the electronic manipulation of acoustic signals. Applications include: active noise control ; design for hearing aids or cochlear implants ; echo cancellation ; music information retrieval , and perceptual coding (e.g. MP3 or Opus ). Architectural acoustics (also known as building acoustics) involves the scientific understanding of how to achieve good sound within a building. It typically involves

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9176-406: Is the preferred material because of its hardness, beauty, and superior resistance to wear. Fingerboards are dressed to a particular transverse curve, and have a small lengthwise "scoop," or concavity, slightly more pronounced on the lower strings, especially when meant for gut or synthetic strings. Some old violins (and some made to appear old) have a grafted scroll , evidenced by a glue joint between

9324-431: Is the scientific study of the hearing and calls of animal calls, as well as how animals are affected by the acoustic and sounds of their habitat. This subdiscipline is concerned with the recording, manipulation and reproduction of audio using electronics. This might include products such as mobile phones , large scale public address systems or virtual reality systems in research laboratories. Environmental acoustics

9472-413: Is the study of noise generated by air movement, for instance via turbulence, and the movement of sound through the fluid air. This knowledge was applied in the 1920s and '30s to detect aircraft before radar was invented and is applied in acoustical engineering to study how to quieten aircraft . Aeroacoustics is important for understanding how wind musical instruments work. Acoustic signal processing

9620-413: Is used sometimes in lieu of adequate ear-training, guiding the placement of fingers by eye and not by ear. Especially in the early stages of learning to play, the so-called "ringing tones" are useful. There are nine such notes in first position, where a stopped note sounds a unison or octave with another (open) string, causing it to resonate sympathetically . Students often use these ringing tones to check

9768-487: Is usually played seated. In the 2000s and 2010s, some orchestras performing Baroque music (such as the Freiburg Baroque Orchestra ) have had all of their violins and violas, solo and ensemble, perform standing up. The standard way of holding the violin is with the left side of the jaw resting on the chinrest of the violin, and supported by the left shoulder, often assisted by a shoulder rest (or

9916-460: Is usually small, it is still noticeable to the human ear. The smallest sound that a person can hear, known as the threshold of hearing , is nine orders of magnitude smaller than the ambient pressure. The loudness of these disturbances is related to the sound pressure level (SPL) which is measured on a logarithmic scale in decibels. Physicists and acoustic engineers tend to discuss sound pressure levels in terms of frequencies, partly because this

10064-531: Is when two separate strings are stopped by the fingers and bowed simultaneously, producing two continuous tones (typical intervals include 3rds, 4ths, 5ths, 6ths, and octaves). Double-stops can be indicated in any position, though the widest interval that can be double-stopped naturally in one position is an octave (with the index finger on the lower string and the pinky finger on the higher string). Nonetheless, intervals of tenths or even more are sometimes required to be double-stopped in advanced repertoire, resulting in

10212-688: The audio signal processing used in electronic music; the computer analysis of music and composition, and the perception and cognitive neuroscience of music . The goal this acoustics sub-discipline is to reduce the impact of unwanted sound. Scope of noise studies includes the generation, propagation, and impact on structures, objects, and people. Noise research investigates the impact of noise on humans and animals to include work in definitions, abatement, transportation noise, hearing protection, Jet and rocket noise, building system noise and vibration, atmospheric sound propagation, soundscapes , and low-frequency sound. Many studies have been conducted to identify

10360-444: The harmonic overtone series on a string. He is reputed to have observed that when the lengths of vibrating strings are expressible as ratios of integers (e.g. 2 to 3, 3 to 4), the tones produced will be harmonious, and the smaller the integers the more harmonious the sounds. For example, a string of a certain length would sound particularly harmonious with a string of twice the length (other factors being equal). In modern parlance, if

10508-555: The speed of sound in air were carried out successfully between 1630 and 1680 by a number of investigators, prominently Mersenne. Meanwhile, Newton (1642–1727) derived the relationship for wave velocity in solids, a cornerstone of physical acoustics ( Principia , 1687). Substantial progress in acoustics, resting on firmer mathematical and physical concepts, was made during the eighteenth century by Euler (1707–1783), Lagrange (1736–1813), and d'Alembert (1717–1783). During this era, continuum physics, or field theory, began to receive

10656-415: The 19th century, Wheatstone, Ohm, and Henry developed the analogy between electricity and acoustics. The twentieth century saw a burgeoning of technological applications of the large body of scientific knowledge that was by then in place. The first such application was Sabine 's groundbreaking work in architectural acoustics, and many others followed. Underwater acoustics was used for detecting submarines in

10804-409: The A string, and the fourth finger is in a downward extension from its regular position, e.g. D ♮ on the A string, with the other two fingers placed in between as required. As the position of the thumb is typically the same in "half position" as in first position, it is better thought of as a backwards extension of the whole hand than as a genuine position. The upper limit of the violin's range

10952-720: The French king Charles IX ordered Andrea Amati to construct 24 violins for him in 1560. One of these "noble" instruments, the Charles IX , is the oldest surviving violin. The finest Renaissance carved and decorated violin in the world is the Gasparo da Salò ( c. 1574) owned by Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria and later, from 1841, by the Norwegian virtuoso Ole Bull , who used it for forty years and thousands of concerts, for its very powerful and beautiful tone, similar to that of

11100-726: The Greek lyre ). Two-stringed, bowed instruments, played upright and strung and bowed with horsehair, may have originated in the nomadic equestrian cultures of Central Asia, in forms closely resembling the modern-day Mongolian Morin huur and the Kazakh Kobyz . Similar and variant types were probably disseminated along east–west trading routes from Asia into the Middle East, and the Byzantine Empire . Rebec , fiddle and lira da braccio are generally considered

11248-461: The above diagram can be found in any acoustical event or process. There are many kinds of cause, both natural and volitional. There are many kinds of transduction process that convert energy from some other form into sonic energy, producing a sound wave. There is one fundamental equation that describes sound wave propagation, the acoustic wave equation , but the phenomena that emerge from it are varied and often complex. The wave carries energy throughout

11396-594: The acoustic phenomenon. The entire spectrum can be divided into three sections: audio, ultrasonic, and infrasonic. The audio range falls between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. This range is important because its frequencies can be detected by the human ear. This range has a number of applications, including speech communication and music. The ultrasonic range refers to the very high frequencies: 20,000 Hz and higher. This range has shorter wavelengths which allow better resolution in imaging technologies. Medical applications such as ultrasonography and elastography rely on

11544-585: The ancestors of the violin, Several sources suggest alternative possibilities for the violin's origins, such as northern or western Europe. The first makers of violins probably borrowed from various developments of the Byzantine lyra. These included the vielle (also known as the fidel or viuola ) and the lira da braccio . The violin in its present form emerged in early 16th-century northern Italy . The earliest pictures of violins, albeit with three strings, are seen in northern Italy around 1530, at around

11692-429: The archaeology of sound, is one of the only ways to experience the past with senses other than our eyes. Archaeoacoustics is studied by testing the acoustic properties of prehistoric sites, including caves. Iegor Rezkinoff, a sound archaeologist, studies the acoustic properties of caves through natural sounds like humming and whistling. Archaeological theories of acoustics are focused around ritualistic purposes as well as

11840-415: The better able it is to sustain good tone right to the top of the fingerboard, at the highest pitches on the E string. All notes (except those below the open D) can be played on more than one string. This is a standard design feature of stringed instruments; however, it differs from the piano, which has only one location for each of its 88 notes. For instance, the note of open A on the violin can be played as

11988-420: The body off balance and makes the shoulders rise. Another sign that comes from unhealthy tension is pain in the left hand, which indicates too much pressure when holding the violin. The left hand determines the sounding length of the string, and thus the pitch of the string, by "stopping" it (pressing it) against the fingerboard with the fingertips, producing different pitches. As the violin has no frets to stop

12136-493: The central nervous system is activated by basic acoustical characteristics of music. By observing how the central nervous system, which includes the brain and spine, is influenced by acoustics, the pathway in which acoustic affects the mind, and essentially the body, is evident. Acousticians study the production, processing and perception of speech. Speech recognition and Speech synthesis are two important areas of speech processing using computers. The subject also overlaps with

12284-438: The complete laws of vibrating strings (completing what Pythagoras and Pythagoreans had started 2000 years earlier). Galileo wrote "Waves are produced by the vibrations of a sonorous body, which spread through the air, bringing to the tympanum of the ear a stimulus which the mind interprets as sound", a remarkable statement that points to the beginnings of physiological and psychological acoustics. Experimental measurements of

12432-400: The correct positions on full-sized instruments. While related in some sense to the dimensions of the instruments, the fractional sizes are not intended to be literal descriptions of relative proportions. For example, a 3 ⁄ 4 -sized instrument is not three-quarters the length of a full size instrument. The body length (not including the neck) of a full-size, or 4 ⁄ 4 , violin

12580-536: The disciplines of physics, physiology , psychology , and linguistics . Structural acoustics is the study of motions and interactions of mechanical systems with their environments and the methods of their measurement, analysis, and control. There are several sub-disciplines found within this regime: Applications might include: ground vibrations from railways; vibration isolation to reduce vibration in operating theatres; studying how vibration can damage health ( vibration white finger ); vibration control to protect

12728-490: The ear of having a definite fundamental pitch, such as pianos , strings plucked pizzicato , vibraphones, marimbas, and certain pure-sounding bells or chimes. Antique singing bowls are known for producing multiple harmonic partials or multiphonics . Other oscillators, such as cymbals , drum heads, and most percussion instruments, naturally produce an abundance of inharmonic partials and do not imply any particular pitch, and therefore cannot be used melodically or harmonically in

12876-429: The expression for "tenor violin" in 1797, from Italian and Old Provençal viola , [which came from] Medieval Latin vitula as a term which means ' stringed instrument ' , perhaps [coming] from Vitula , Roman goddess of joy..., or from related Latin verb vitulari , "to cry out in joy or exaltation." The related term Viola da gamba meaning ' bass viol ' (1724) is from Italian, literally "a viola for

13024-400: The fingers (though the movement of the thumb may occur slightly before, or slightly after, the movement of the fingers). In such positions, the thumb is often thought of as an 'anchor' whose location defines what position the player is in. In very high positions, the thumb is unable to move with the fingers as the body of the instrument gets in the way. Instead, the thumb works around the neck of

13172-437: The first case, advancing the bow from the usual place where the fundamental note is produced, towards the bridge, the whole scale of harmonics may be produced in succession, on an old and highly resonant instrument. The employment of this means produces the effect called ' sul ponticello .' (2) The production of harmonics by the slight pressure of the finger on the open string is more useful. When produced by pressing slightly on

13320-456: The first World War. Sound recording and the telephone played important roles in a global transformation of society. Sound measurement and analysis reached new levels of accuracy and sophistication through the use of electronics and computing. The ultrasonic frequency range enabled wholly new kinds of application in medicine and industry. New kinds of transducers (generators and receivers of acoustic energy) were invented and put to use. Acoustics

13468-447: The first finger back down to a C ♯ , or the fourth finger up to an A ♮ , forms an extension. Extensions are commonly used where one or two notes are slightly out of an otherwise solid position, and give the benefit of being less intrusive than a shift or string crossing. The lowest position on the violin is referred to as "half position". In this position the first finger is on a "low first position" note, e.g. B ♭ on

13616-410: The foot. While teachers point out the vital importance of good posture both for the sake of the quality of the playing and to reduce the chance of repetitive strain injury , advice as to what good posture is and how to achieve it differs in details. However, all insist on the importance of a natural relaxed position without tension or rigidity. Things which are almost universally recommended are keeping

13764-473: The fundamental frequency, practical instruments do not all have this characteristic. For example, higher "harmonics" of piano notes are not true harmonics but are "overtones" and can be very sharp, i.e. a higher frequency than given by a pure harmonic series . This is especially true of instruments other than strings , brass , or woodwinds . Examples of these "other" instruments are xylophones, drums, bells, chimes, etc.; not all of their overtone frequencies make

13912-432: The graduation (the thickness profile) of both the top and back, the varnish that coats its outside surface and the skill of the luthier in doing all of these steps. The varnish and especially the wood continue to improve with age, making the fixed supply of old well-made violins built by famous luthiers much sought-after. The majority of glued joints in the instrument use animal hide glue rather than common white glue for

14060-469: The harmonics are present): In many musical instruments , it is possible to play the upper harmonics without the fundamental note being present. In a simple case (e.g., recorder ) this has the effect of making the note go up in pitch by an octave , but in more complex cases many other pitch variations are obtained. In some cases it also changes the timbre of the note. This is part of the normal method of obtaining higher notes in wind instruments , where it

14208-413: The harmonics), losing the desired tone, brilliance and intonation. String longevity depends on string quality and playing intensity. A violin is tuned in fifths, in the notes G 3 , D 4 , A 4 , E 5 . The lowest note of a violin, tuned normally, is G 3 , or G below middle C (C4) . (On rare occasions, the lowest string may be tuned down by as much as a fourth, to D 3 .) The highest note playable

14356-701: The instrument a more powerful sound and projection. In Europe, it served as the basis for the development of other stringed instruments used in Western classical music, such as the viola . Violinists and collectors particularly prize the fine historical instruments made by the Stradivari , Guarneri , Guadagnini and Amati families from the 16th to the 18th century in Brescia and Cremona (Italy) and by Jacob Stainer in Austria. According to their reputation,

14504-446: The instrument to sit at the point at which the neck meets the right bout of the body, and remains there while the fingers move between the high positions. A note played outside of the normal compass of a position, without any shift, is referred to as an extension . For instance, in third position on the A string, the hand naturally sits with the first finger on D ♮ and the fourth on either G ♮ or G ♯ . Stretching

14652-452: The integer multiples of fundamental frequency and therefore resemble the ideal harmonics and are called "harmonic partials" or simply "harmonics" for convenience (although it's not strictly accurate to call a   partial   a   harmonic ,  the first being actual and the second being theoretical). Oscillators that produce harmonic partials behave somewhat like one-dimensional resonators , and are often long and thin, such as

14800-401: The intonation of the stopped note by seeing if it is harmonious with the open string. For example, when playing the stopped pitch "A" on the G string, the violinist could play the open D string at the same time, to check the intonation of the stopped "A". If the "A" is in tune, the "A" and the open D string should produce a harmonious perfect fourth. Violins are tuned in perfect fifths, like all

14948-404: The left hand on the fingerboard is characterized by "positions". First position, where most beginners start (although some methods start in third position), is the most commonly used position in string music. Music composed for beginning youth orchestras is often mostly in first position. The lowest note available in this position in standard tuning is an open G3; the highest note in first position

15096-410: The left wrist straight (or very nearly so) to allow the fingers of the left hand to move freely and to reduce the chance of injury and keeping either shoulder in a natural relaxed position and avoiding raising either of them in an exaggerated manner. This, like any other unwarranted tension, would limit freedom of motion, and increase the risk of injury. Hunching can hamper good playing because it throws

15244-506: The leg" (i.e. to hold between the legs)." A violin is the "modern form of the smaller, medieval viola da braccio ." ("arm viola") The violin is often called a fiddle. "Fiddle" can be used as the instrument's customary name in folk music, or as an informal name for the instrument in other styles of music. The word "fiddle" was first used in English in the late 14th century. The word "fiddle" comes from "fedele, fydyll, fidel, earlier fithele, from Old English fiðele ' fiddle ' , which

15392-445: The lowest partial in a compound tone. The relative strengths and frequency relationships of the component partials determine the timbre of an instrument. The similarity between the terms overtone and partial sometimes leads to their being loosely used interchangeably in a musical context, but they are counted differently, leading to some possible confusion. In the special case of instrumental timbres whose component partials closely match

15540-510: The lowest) to C, F, and B ♭ . If the instrument's playing length, or string length from nut to bridge, is equal to that of an ordinary full-scale violin; i.e., a bit less than 13 inches (33 cm), then it may be properly termed a violin. Some such instruments are somewhat longer and should be regarded as violas. Violins with five strings or more are typically used in jazz or folk music. Some custom-made instruments have extra strings which are not bowed, but which sound sympathetically, due to

15688-605: The more desirable, harmonious notes. During the Islamic golden age , Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973–1048) is believed to have postulated that the speed of sound was much slower than the speed of light. The physical understanding of acoustical processes advanced rapidly during and after the Scientific Revolution . Mainly Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) but also Marin Mersenne (1588–1648), independently, discovered

15836-417: The node found halfway down the highest string of a cello produces the same pitch as lightly fingering the node ⁠ 1  / 3 ⁠ of the way down the second highest string. For the human voice see Overtone singing , which uses harmonics. While it is true that electronically produced periodic tones (e.g. square waves or other non-sinusoidal waves) have "harmonics" that are whole number multiples of

15984-413: The note does not have time to ring and develop a harsh timbre. In folk music, fiddling and other traditional music genres, open strings are commonly used for their resonant timbre. Playing an open string simultaneously with a stopped note on an adjacent string produces a bagpipe -like drone, often used by composers in imitation of folk music . Sometimes the two notes are identical (for instance, playing

16132-462: The notes may indicate which finger to use, with 0 or O indicating an open string. The chart to the right shows the arrangement of notes reachable in first position. Not shown on this chart is the way the spacing between note positions becomes closer as the fingers move up (in pitch) from the nut. The bars at the sides of the chart represent the usual possibilities for beginners' tape placements, at 1st, high 2nd, 3rd, and 4th fingers. The placement of

16280-408: The old glue.) Weaker, diluted glue is usually used to fasten the top to the ribs, and the nut to the fingerboard, since common repairs involve removing these parts. The purfling running around the edge of the spruce top provides some protection against cracks originating at the edge. It also allows the top to flex more independently of the rib structure. Painted-on faux purfling on the top is usually

16428-441: The onset of such wear while allowing the pegs to turn smoothly. The tuning G–D–A–E is used for most violin music, including Classical music, jazz, and folk music . Other tunings are occasionally employed; the G string, for example, can be tuned up to A. The use of nonstandard tunings in classical music is known as scordatura ; in some folk styles, it is called cross tuning . One famous example of scordatura in classical music

16576-434: The open A, or on the D string (in first to fourth positions) or even on the G string (very high up in sixth to ninth positions). Each string has a different tone quality , because of the different weights (thicknesses) of the strings and because of the resonances of other open strings. For instance, the G string is often regarded as having a very full, sonorous sound which is particularly appropriate to late Romantic music. This

16724-462: The orchestral strings (violin, viola, cello) except the double bass, which is tuned in perfect fourths. Each subsequent note is stopped at a pitch the player perceives as the most harmonious, "when unaccompanied, [a violinist] does not play consistently in either the tempered or the natural [just] scale, but tends on the whole to conform with the Pythagorean scale ." When violinists are playing in

16872-492: The other strings, especially on a student instrument, and are sometimes built into the tailpiece. The fine tuners enable the performer to make small changes in the pitch of a string. At the scroll end, the strings wind around the wooden tuning pegs in the pegbox. The tuning pegs are tapered and fit into holes in the peg box. The tuning pegs are held in place by the friction of wood on wood. Strings may be made of metal or less commonly gut or gut wrapped in metal. Strings usually have

17020-415: The overtones). In the classical tradition, violinists will often use a string crossing or shift of position to allow them to avoid the change of timbre introduced by an open string, unless indicated by the composer. This is particularly true for the open E which is often regarded as having a harsh sound. However, there are also situations where an open string may be specifically chosen for artistic effect. This

17168-423: The pegbox and neck. Many authentic old instruments have had their necks reset to a slightly increased angle, and lengthened by about a centimeter. The neck graft allows the original scroll to be kept with a Baroque violin when bringing its neck into conformance with modern standards. The bridge is a precisely cut piece of maple that forms the lower anchor point of the vibrating length of the strings and transmits

17316-411: The pickups plugged into instrument amplifiers and speakers to produce sound. The violin has come to be incorporated in many non-Western music cultures, including Indian music and Iranian music . The name fiddle is often used regardless of the type of music played on it. The violin was first known in 16th-century Italy, with some further modifications occurring in the 18th and 19th centuries to give

17464-406: The propagating medium. Eventually this energy is transduced again into other forms, in ways that again may be natural and/or volitionally contrived. The final effect may be purely physical or it may reach far into the biological or volitional domains. The five basic steps are found equally well whether we are talking about an earthquake , a submarine using sonar to locate its foe, or a band playing in

17612-474: The quality of their sound has defied attempts to explain or equal it, though this belief is disputed. Great numbers of instruments have come from the hands of less famous makers, as well as still greater numbers of mass-produced commercial "trade violins" coming from cottage industries in places such as Saxony , Bohemia , and Mirecourt . Many of these trade instruments were formerly sold by Sears, Roebuck and Co. and other mass merchandisers. The components of

17760-435: The relationship between acoustics and cognition , or more commonly known as psychoacoustics , in which what one hears is a combination of perception and biological aspects. The information intercepted by the passage of sound waves through the ear is understood and interpreted through the brain, emphasizing the connection between the mind and acoustics. Psychological changes have been seen as brain waves slow down or speed up as

17908-567: The same time as the words "violino" and "vyollon" are seen in Italian and French documents. One of the earliest explicit descriptions of the instrument, including its tuning, is from the Epitome musical by Jambe de Fer , published in Lyon in 1556. By this time, the violin had already begun to spread throughout Europe . The violin proved very popular, both among street musicians and the nobility;

18056-408: The same way other instruments can. Building on of Sethares (2004), dynamic tonality introduces the notion of pseudo-harmonic partials, in which the frequency of each partial is aligned to match the pitch of a corresponding note in a pseudo-just tuning, thereby maximizing the consonance of that pseudo-harmonic timbre with notes of that pseudo-just tuning. An overtone is any partial higher than

18204-440: The simplified physical models predict; for example, instruments made of non-linearly elastic wood, instead of metal, or strung with gut instead of brass or steel strings , tend to have not-quite-integer partials. Partials whose frequencies are not integer multiples of the fundamental are referred to as inharmonic partials . Some acoustic instruments emit a mix of harmonic and inharmonic partials but still produce an effect on

18352-444: The sound wave strikes the microphone's diaphragm, it moves and induces a voltage change. The ultrasonic systems used in medical ultrasonography employ piezoelectric transducers. These are made from special ceramics in which mechanical vibrations and electrical fields are interlinked through a property of the material itself. An acoustician is an expert in the science of sound. There are many types of acoustician, but they usually have

18500-404: The standard for perfection in violin craftsmanship and sound, and violin makers all over the world try to come as close to this ideal as possible. To this day, instruments from the so-called Golden Age of violin making , especially those made by Stradivari, Guarneri del Gesù, and Montagnana, are the most sought-after instruments by both collectors and performers. The current record amount paid for

18648-423: The stick, at all levels of craftsmanship. Inexpensive bows for students are made of less costly timbers, or from fiberglass (Glasser). The violin is played either seated or standing up. Solo players (whether playing alone, with a piano or with an orchestra) play mostly standing up (unless prevented by a physical disability such as in the case of Itzhak Perlman ). In contrast, in the orchestra and in chamber music it

18796-407: The string) at an exact point on the string while sounding the string (plucking, bowing, etc.); this allows the harmonic to sound, a pitch which is always higher than the fundamental frequency of the string. Harmonics may be called "overtones", "partials", or "upper partials", and in some music contexts, the terms "harmonic", "overtone" and "partial" are used fairly interchangeably. But more precisely,

18944-425: The strings, as is usual with the guitar , the player must know exactly where to place the fingers on the strings to play with good intonation (tuning). Beginning violinists play open strings and the lowest position, nearest to the nut. Students often start with relatively easy keys, such as A Major and G major. Students are taught scales and simple melodies. Through practice of scales and arpeggios and ear training ,

19092-524: The strings. Another prevalent tuning with these intervals is B ♭ –F–B ♭ –F, which corresponds to Sa–Pa–Sa–Pa in the Indian carnatic classical music style. In the North Indian Hindustani style, the tuning is usually Pa-Sa-Pa-Sa instead of Sa–Pa–Sa–Pa. This could correspond to F–B ♭ –F–B ♭ , for instance. In Iranian classical music and Iranian light music, the violin has different tunings in each Dastgah ; it

19240-497: The strings. Composer Lawrence Ball uses harmonics to generate music electronically. Acoustics Acoustics is a branch of physics that deals with the study of mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including topics such as vibration , sound , ultrasound and infrasound . A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician while someone working in the field of acoustics technology may be called an acoustical engineer . The application of acoustics

19388-468: The study of speech intelligibility, speech privacy, music quality, and vibration reduction in the built environment. Commonly studied environments are hospitals, classrooms, dwellings, performance venues, recording and broadcasting studios. Focus considerations include room acoustics, airborne and impact transmission in building structures, airborne and structure-borne noise control, noise control of building systems and electroacoustic systems. Bioacoustics

19536-470: The tail of a grey male horse (which has predominantly white hair). Some cheaper bows use synthetic fiber. Solid rosin is rubbed onto the hair, to render it slightly sticky; when the bow is drawn across a string, the friction between them makes the string vibrate. Traditional materials for the more costly bow sticks include snakewood , and brazilwood (which is also known as Pernambuco wood). Some recent bow design innovations use carbon fiber (CodaBows) for

19684-539: The term "harmonic" includes all pitches in a harmonic series (including the fundamental frequency) while the term "overtone" only includes pitches above the fundamental. A whizzing, whistling tonal character, distinguishes all the harmonics both natural and artificial from the firmly stopped intervals; therefore their application in connection with the latter must always be carefully considered. Most acoustic instruments emit complex tones containing many individual partials (component simple tones or sinusoidal waves), but

19832-716: The thickness of the wood, and its physical qualities govern the sound of a violin. Patterns of the node made by sand or glitter sprinkled on the plates with the plate vibrated at certain frequencies, called Chladni patterns , are occasionally used by luthiers to verify their work before assembling the instrument. Apart from the standard full ( 4 ⁄ 4 ) size, violins are also made in so-called fractional sizes of 7 ⁄ 8 , 3 ⁄ 4 , 1 ⁄ 2 , 1 ⁄ 4 , 1 ⁄ 8 , 1 ⁄ 10 , 1 ⁄ 16 , 1 ⁄ 32 and even 1 ⁄ 64 . These smaller instruments are commonly used by young players whose fingers are not long enough to reach

19980-456: The time varying pressure level and frequency profiles which give a specific acoustic signal its defining character. A transducer is a device for converting one form of energy into another. In an electroacoustic context, this means converting sound energy into electrical energy (or vice versa). Electroacoustic transducers include loudspeakers , microphones , particle velocity sensors, hydrophones and sonar projectors. These devices convert

20128-504: The tonal harmonics from the n characteristic modes, where n is a multiple of 3, will be made relatively more prominent. In music, harmonics are used on string instruments and wind instruments as a way of producing sound on the instrument, particularly to play higher notes and, with strings, obtain notes that have a unique sound quality or "tone colour". On strings, bowed harmonics have a "glassy", pure tone. On stringed instruments, harmonics are played by touching (but not fully pressing down

20276-440: The top and the back of the instrument. The tailpiece anchors the strings to the lower bout of the violin by means of the tailgut, which loops around an ebony button called the tailpin (sometimes confusingly called the endpin , like the cello's spike), which fits into a tapered hole in the bottom block. The E string will often have a fine tuning lever worked by a small screw turned by the fingers. Fine tuners may also be applied to

20424-406: The tuning pegs and their holes can become worn, making the pegs more likely to slip under tension. A slipping peg leads to the pitch of the string dropping somewhat, or if the peg becomes completely loose, to the string completely losing tension. A violin in which the tuning pegs are slipping needs to be repaired by a luthier or violin repairperson. Peg dope or peg compound, used regularly, can delay

20572-420: The ultrasonic frequency range. On the other end of the spectrum, the lowest frequencies are known as the infrasonic range. These frequencies can be used to study geological phenomena such as earthquakes. Analytic instruments such as the spectrum analyzer facilitate visualization and measurement of acoustic signals and their properties. The spectrogram produced by such an instrument is a graphical display of

20720-448: The untrained human ear typically does not perceive those partials as separate phenomena. Rather, a musical note is perceived as one sound, the quality or timbre of that sound being a result of the relative strengths of the individual partials. Many acoustic oscillators , such as the human voice or a bowed violin string, produce complex tones that are more or less periodic , and thus are composed of partials that are nearly matched to

20868-447: The various nodes of the open strings they are called 'natural harmonics'. ... Violinists are well aware that the longer the string in proportion to its thickness, the greater the number of upper harmonics it can be made to yield. The following table displays the stop points on a stringed instrument at which gentle touching of a string will force it into a harmonic mode when vibrated. String harmonics (flageolet tones) are described as having

21016-500: The verb ἀκούω( akouo ), "I hear". The Latin synonym is "sonic", after which the term sonics used to be a synonym for acoustics and later a branch of acoustics. Frequencies above and below the audible range are called " ultrasonic " and " infrasonic ", respectively. In the 6th century BC, the ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras wanted to know why some combinations of musical sounds seemed more beautiful than others, and he found answers in terms of numerical ratios representing

21164-424: The vibration of the strings to the body of the instrument. Its top curve holds the strings at the proper height from the fingerboard in an arc, allowing each to be sounded separately by the bow. The sound post , or soul post , fits precisely inside the instrument between the back and top, at a carefully chosen spot near the treble foot of the bridge, which it helps support. It also influences the modes of vibration of

21312-410: The vibrations of the bowed strings. A violin is usually played using a bow consisting of a stick with a ribbon of horsehair strung between the tip and frog (or nut, or heel) at opposite ends. A typical violin bow may be 75 cm (30 in) overall, and weigh about 60 g (2.1 oz). Viola bows may be about 5 mm (0.20 in) shorter and 10 g (0.35 oz) heavier. At the frog end,

21460-479: The violin in the violin octet is the mezzo violin, tuned the same as a violin but with a slightly longer body. The strings of the mezzo violin are the same length as those of the standard violin. This instrument is not in common use. Violins are tuned by turning the pegs in the pegbox under the scroll or by adjusting the fine tuner screws at the tailpiece . All violins have pegs; fine tuners (also called fine adjusters ) are optional. Most fine tuners consist of

21608-410: The violinist's left hand eventually "finds" the notes intuitively by muscle memory . Beginners sometimes rely on tapes placed on the fingerboard for proper left hand finger placement, but usually abandon the tapes quickly as they advance. Another commonly used marking technique uses dots of white-out on the fingerboard, which wear off in a few weeks of regular practice. This practice, unfortunately,

21756-416: The wave interacts with the environment. This interaction can be described as either a diffraction , interference or a reflection or a mix of the three. If several media are present, a refraction can also occur. Transduction processes are also of special importance to acoustics. In fluids such as air and water, sound waves propagate as disturbances in the ambient pressure level. While this disturbance

21904-433: Was stretched, dried, and twisted. In the early years of the 20th century, strings were made of either gut or steel. Modern strings may be gut, solid steel , stranded steel, or various synthetic materials such as perlon , wound with various metals, and sometimes plated with silver . Most E strings are unwound, either plain or plated steel. Gut strings are not as common as they once were, but many performers use them to achieve

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