Misplaced Pages

#410589

134-671: The municipality lies in the Eifel – indeed in the heights of the Vulkaneifel – and belongs to the Verbandsgemeinde Wittlich-Land . In 1341, Hasborn had its first documentary mention in a document from Prince-Archbishop-Elector Balduin . The name is interpreted thus: Born means “ spring ” (cognate with the English “bourne”), while the first syllable is from a Frankish name, Hasso, all of which means that

268-563: A solar inverter to convert the output from direct to alternating current , as well as mounting , cabling , and other electrical accessories to set up a working system. Many utility-scale PV systems use tracking systems that follow the sun's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than fixed-mounted systems. PV systems convert light directly into electricity and are not to be confused with other solar technologies, such as concentrated solar power or solar thermal , used for heating and cooling. A solar array only encompasses

402-414: A "sea" of unpowered lines, as the solar array continues to deliver DC power during the power outage. Islanding is a hazard to utility workers, who may not realize that an AC circuit is still powered, and it may prevent automatic re-connection of devices. Anti-Islanding feature is not required for complete Off-Grid Systems. Although still expensive, PV systems increasingly use rechargeable batteries to store

536-477: A PV cell is defined as the fraction of incident solar irradiance that is absorbed by the cell. When the sun is at the zenith on a cloudless day, the power of the sun is about 1 kW /m , on the Earth's surface, to a plane that is perpendicular to the sun's rays. As such, PV arrays can track the sun through each day to greatly enhance energy collection. However, tracking devices add cost, and require maintenance, so it

670-403: A PV solar installation varies greatly and is typically less useful than a calculation of return on investment . While it is typically calculated to be between 10 and 20 years, the financial payback period can be far shorter with incentives . The temperature effect on photovoltaic modules is usually quantified by means of some coefficients relating the variations of the open‐circuit voltage, of

804-685: A SW-NE direction far beyond the Rhine valley. Since that folding, the Eifel has largely remained part of the mainland. During the Permian , after the end of the uplifting, the Variscan mountains were heavily eroded, leaving only a relatively flat, truncated upland. For a short time, and only partially, this was later flooded by the sea. Depositions from the Triassic and Jurassic periods have survived in

938-443: A balance of system may include any or all of the following: renewable energy credit revenue-grade meter, maximum power point tracker (MPPT), battery system and charger , GNSS solar tracker , energy management software , solar irradiance sensors, anemometer , or task-specific accessories designed to meet specialized requirements for a system owner. In addition, a CPV system requires optical lenses or mirrors and sometimes

1072-427: A cell that can reach 44.7% efficiency using the equivalent of "297 suns". Photovoltaic cell electrical output is extremely sensitive to shading (the so-called "Christmas light effect"). When even a small portion of a cell or of a module or array of cells in parallel is shaded, with the remainder in sunlight, the output falls dramatically due to internal 'short-circuiting' (the electrons reversing course through

1206-463: A chain from northwest to southeast. The youngest maars are only slightly older than 11,000  years. In the eastern Eifel, volcanism began about 500,000 years ago in the area of today's Laacher See; it extended to the Neuwied Basin to the south, and crossed the Rhine to the east. The quantity of basalt lavas, pumice tuffs and ash tuffs produced by the volcanoes was far greater here than in

1340-407: A cooling system. The terms "solar array" and "PV system" are often incorrectly used interchangeably, despite the fact that the solar array does not encompass the entire system. Moreover, "solar panel" is often used as a synonym for "solar module", although a panel consists of a string of several modules. The term "solar system" is also an often used misnomer for a PV system. The building blocks of

1474-492: A distinctly stimulating climate; the high elevations being considered as highly stimulating. The Eifel is a clean air area with very low air-chemical pollution. On hot sunny days, there is sometimes an increased concentration of ground-level ozone. Here are a couple of weather station examples for settlements in the Eifel. At the time of the Roman Empire the whole mountain range between the rivers Rhine, Meuse and Moselle

SECTION 10

#1732802597411

1608-674: A grass football pitch, a training square, a big, multipurpose sport hall and a nine-pin bowling alley at the Hotel Thomas. Moreover, the Maare-Moselle Cycle Path ( Maare-Mosel-Radweg ) runs along the old disused Eifelbahn ( railway ) alignment through the municipality. By way of the Hasborn interchange , there is a direct link to the Autobahn A ;1 . Through Hasborn runs Landesstraße (State Road) 52,

1742-405: A large portion of sunlight directly. In diffuse light (i.e. under cloud or fog), tracking has little or no value. Because most concentrated photovoltaics systems are very sensitive to the sunlight's angle, tracking systems allow them to produce useful power for more than a brief period each day. Tracking systems improve performance for two main reasons. First, when a solar panel is perpendicular to

1876-420: A large rack is mounted on the ground, and the modules mounted on the rack. For buildings, many different racks have been devised for pitched roofs. For flat roofs, racks, bins and building integrated solutions are used. Solar panel racks mounted on top of poles can be stationary or moving, see Trackers below. Side-of-pole mounts are suitable for situations where a pole has something else mounted at its top, such as

2010-607: A large temperature range. Specific performance requirements for material used for wiring a solar panel installation are given in national and local electrical codes which regulate electrical installations in an area. General features required for solar cables are resistance to ultraviolet light, weather, temperature extremes of the area and insulation suitable for the voltage class of the equipment. Different jurisdictions will have specific rules regarding grounding (earthing) of solar power installations for electric shock protection and lightning protection. A solar tracking system tilts

2144-445: A light fixture or an antenna. Pole mounting raises what would otherwise be a ground mounted array above weed shadows and livestock, and may satisfy electrical code requirements regarding inaccessibility of exposed wiring. Pole mounted panels are open to more cooling air on their underside, which increases performance. A multiplicity of pole top racks can be formed into a parking carport or other shade structure. A rack which does not follow

2278-570: A local scale - such as those from snow or the effects of surface coatings (e.g. hydrophobic or hydrophilic ) on soiling or snow losses. (Although in heavy snow environments with severe ground interference can result in annual losses from snow of 30%. ) Access to the Internet has allowed a further improvement in energy monitoring and communication. Dedicated systems are available from a number of vendors. For solar PV systems that use microinverters (panel-level DC to AC conversion), module power data

2412-593: A modified version of the conventional lead–acid battery  – nickel–cadmium and lithium-ion batteries. Compared to the other types, lead-acid batteries have a shorter lifetime and lower energy density. However, due to their high reliability, low self discharge as well as low investment and maintenance costs, they are currently (as of 2014) the predominant technology used in small-scale, residential PV systems, as lithium-ion batteries are still being developed and about 3.5 times as expensive as lead-acid batteries. Furthermore, as storage devices for PV systems are stationary,

2546-552: A photovoltaic system are solar cells. A solar cell is the electrical device that can directly convert photons energy into electricity. There are three technological generations of solar cells: the first generation (1G) of crystalline silicon cells (c-Si), the second generation (2G) of thin-film cells (such as CdTe , CIGS , Amorphous Silicon , and GaAs ), and the third generation (3G) of organic , dye-sensitized , Perovskite and multijunction cells . Conventional c-Si solar cells , normally wired in series, are encapsulated in

2680-450: A rechargeable lithium-ion battery with the aim to revolutionize energy consumption. PV systems with an integrated battery solution also need a charge controller , as the varying voltage and current from the solar array requires constant adjustment to prevent damage from overcharging. Basic charge controllers may simply turn the PV panels on and off, or may meter out pulses of energy as needed,

2814-477: A result of grid constraints preventing feedback of unused electricity into the grid as well as increased electricity costs resulting in improved economics. A typical residential solar array is rack-mounted on the roof, rather than integrated into the roof or facade of the building, which is significantly more expensive. Utility-scale solar power stations are ground-mounted, with fixed tilted solar panels rather than using expensive tracking devices. Crystalline silicon

SECTION 20

#1732802597411

2948-616: A shaded cell may drop 8 volts, instead of adding 0.5 volts, at a high current level, thereby absorbing the power produced by 16 other cells. It is thus important that a PV installation not be shaded by trees or other obstructions. There are techniques to mitigate the losses with diodes, but these techniques also entail losses. Several methods have been developed to determine shading losses from trees to PV systems over both large regions using LiDAR , but also at an individual system level using 3D modeling software . Most modules have bypass diodes between each cell or string of cells that minimize

3082-590: A significant role in output depending on the surface around the photovoltaic system and the type of solar cell material. A photovoltaic installation in the northern latitudes of Europe or the United States may expect to produce 1 kWh/m /day. A typical 1 kW photovoltaic installation in Australia or the southern latitudes of Europe or United States, may produce 3.5–5 kWh per day, dependent on location, orientation, tilt, insolation and other factors. In

3216-496: A single home, or an isolated device in the form of AC or DC electric. Military and civilian Earth observation satellites , street lights , construction and traffic signs, electric cars , solar-powered tents, and electric aircraft may contain integrated photovoltaic systems to provide a primary or auxiliary power source in the form of AC or DC power, depending on the design and power demands. In 2013, rooftop systems accounted for 60 percent of worldwide installations. However, there

3350-447: A small portion of the market. Operating silently and without any moving parts or air pollution , PV systems have evolved from niche market applications into a mature technology used for mainstream electricity generation. Due to the growth of photovoltaics , prices for PV systems have rapidly declined since their introduction; however, they vary by market and the size of the system. Nowadays, solar PV modules account for less than half of

3484-468: A solar module to protect them from the weather. The module consists of a tempered glass as cover, a soft and flexible encapsulant , a rear backsheet made of a weathering and fire-resistant material and an aluminium frame around the outer edge. Electrically connected and mounted on a supporting structure, solar modules build a string of modules, often called solar panel. A solar array consists of one or many such panels. A photovoltaic array, or solar array,

3618-507: A solar panel throughout the day. Depending on the type of tracking system, the panel is either aimed directly at the Sun or the brightest area of a partly clouded sky. Trackers greatly enhance early morning and late afternoon performance, increasing the total amount of power produced by a system by about 20–25% for a single axis tracker and about 30% or more for a dual axis tracker, depending on latitude. Trackers are effective in regions that receive

3752-546: A strategy called PWM or pulse-width modulation . More advanced charge controllers will incorporate MPPT logic into their battery charging algorithms. Charge controllers may also divert energy to some purpose other than battery charging. Rather than simply shut off the free PV energy when not needed, a user may choose to heat air or water once the battery is full. The metering must be able to accumulate energy units in both directions, or two meters must be used. Many meters accumulate bidirectionally, some systems use two meters, but

3886-407: A surplus to be later used at night. Batteries used for grid-storage also stabilize the electrical grid by leveling out peak loads , and play an important role in a smart grid , as they can charge during periods of low demand and feed their stored energy into the grid when demand is high. Common battery technologies used in today's PV systems include the valve regulated lead-acid battery  –

4020-533: A unidirectional meter (with detent) will not accumulate energy from any resultant feed into the grid. In some countries, for installations over 30  kW p a frequency and a voltage monitor with disconnection of all phases is required. This is done where more solar power is being generated than can be accommodated by the utility, and the excess can not either be exported or stored . Grid operators historically have needed to provide transmission lines and generation capacity. Now they need to also provide storage. This

4154-455: A voltage range that can charge 12-volt batteries directly, so addition of a PV system requires only panels, a charge controller, and wiring. Solar systems on recreation vehicles are usually constrained in wattage by the physical size of the RV's roof space. In urban and suburban areas, photovoltaic arrays are often used on rooftops to supplement power use; often the building will have a connection to

Hasborn - Misplaced Pages Continue

4288-481: Is cost-effective . In 2018, the estimated soiling-induced revenue loss was estimated to between 5 and 7 billion euros. The long‐term reliability of photovoltaic modules is crucial to ensure the technical and economic viability of PV as a successful energy source. The analysis of degradation mechanisms of PV modules is key to ensure current lifetimes exceeding 25 years. Solar insolation is made up of direct, diffuse, and reflected radiation . The absorption factor of

4422-476: Is a linked collection of solar modules. The power that one module can produce is seldom enough to meet requirements of a home or a business, so the modules are linked together to form an array. Most PV arrays use an inverter to convert the DC power produced by the modules into alternating current that can power lights , motors, and other loads. The modules in a PV array are usually first connected in series to obtain

4556-536: Is a notable trend towards utility-scale systems, as the focus on new installations is shifting away from Europe to sunnier regions, such as the Sunbelt in the U.S., which are less opposed to ground-mounted solar farms and cost-effectiveness is more emphasized by investors. Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing scale and sophistication, the cost of photovoltaics is declining continuously. There are several million PV systems distributed all over

4690-707: Is a trend away from rooftop and towards utility-scale PV systems, as the focus of new PV installations is also shifting from Europe to countries in the sunbelt region of the planet where opposition to ground-mounted solar farms is less accentuated. Portable and mobile PV systems provide electrical power independent of utility connections, for "off the grid" operation. Such systems are so commonly used on recreational vehicles and boats that there are retailers specializing in these applications and products specifically targeted to them. Since recreational vehicles (RV) normally carry batteries and operate lighting and other systems on nominally 12-volt DC power, RV systems normally operate in

4824-451: Is about a square meter in size. Such a module may be expected to produce 0.75 kilowatt-hour (kWh) every day, on average, after taking into account the weather and the latitude, for an insolation of 5 sun hours/day. Module output degrades faster at increased temperature. Allowing ambient air to flow over, and if possible behind, PV modules reduces this problem, as the airflow tend to reduce the operating temperature and, as consequence, increase

4958-419: Is an average of 70 days of full snow cover because the frequency of snow at higher elevations is relatively high (for comparison: Bitburg 35  days, Maifeld 30  days), but the level of snowfall varies from year to year. Snow heights vary on average between 15 cm and 60 cm. The humid Atlantic climate can cause extreme variations though: on 2 March 1987 there was 227 centimetres of snow in

5092-424: Is around 10 kilowatts and mounted on a sloped roof, while commercial systems may reach a megawatt-scale and are generally installed on low-slope or even flat roofs. Although rooftop mounted systems are small and have a higher cost per watt than large utility-scale installations, they account for the largest share in the market. There is, however, a growing trend towards bigger utility-scale power plants, especially in

5226-466: Is assembled into a protective weatherproof enclosure, thus making a photovoltaic module or solar panel . Modules may then be strung together into a photovoltaic array. In 2012, solar panels available for consumers had an efficiency of up to about 17%, while commercially available panels can go as far as 27%. By concentrating the sunlight it is possible to achieve higher efficiencies. A group from The Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems has created

5360-426: Is automatically provided. Some systems allow setting performance alerts that trigger phone/email/text warnings when limits are reached. These solutions provide data for the system owner and the installer. Installers are able to remotely monitor multiple installations, and see at-a-glance the status of their entire installed base. A photovoltaic system for residential, commercial, or industrial energy supply consists of

5494-576: Is critical for revenue and O&M efficiency. Monitoring of array performance may be part of contractual agreements between the array owner, the builder, and the utility purchasing the energy produced. A method to create "synthetic days" using readily available weather data and verification using the Open Solar Outdoors Test Field make it possible to predict photovoltaic systems performance with high degrees of accuracy. This method can be used to then determine loss mechanisms on

Hasborn - Misplaced Pages Continue

5628-420: Is more common for PV arrays to have fixed mounts that tilt the array and face due south in the northern hemisphere or due north in the southern hemisphere. The tilt angle from horizontal can be varied for season, but if fixed, should be set to give optimal array output during the peak electrical demand portion of a typical year for a stand-alone system. This optimal module tilt angle is not necessarily identical to

5762-429: Is needed. If both of those fail, installations over 30kWp can automatically shut down, although in practice all inverters maintain voltage regulation and stop supplying power if the load is inadequate. Grid operators have the option of curtailing excess generation from large systems, although this is more commonly done with wind power than solar power, and results in a substantial loss of revenue. Three-phase inverters have

5896-407: Is normally hydro-storage, but other means of storage are used. Initially storage was used so that baseload generators could operate at full output. With variable renewable energy , storage is needed to allow power generation whenever it is available, and consumption whenever needed. The two variables a grid operator has are storing electricity for when it is needed, or transmitting it to where it

6030-596: Is now regarded as the standard work on the geology of the Eifel. The Eifel and its western continuation into Belgium, the Ardennes , are the remains of a Variscan truncated upland , much of it 400 million years old, that is part of the Rhenish Massif ( Rheinisches Schiefergebirge ). In the area of the Stavelot-Venn Saddle ( Hohes Venn ) are the oldest layers of rock, which originate from

6164-482: Is required. A solar inverter may connect to a string of solar panels. In some installations a solar micro-inverter is connected at each solar panel. For safety reasons a circuit breaker is provided both on the AC and DC side to enable maintenance. AC output may be connected through an electricity meter into the public grid. The number of modules in the system determines the total DC watts capable of being generated by

6298-430: Is stored or used directly by island/standalone plant. PV systems are generally designed in order to ensure the highest energy yield for a given investment. Some large photovoltaic power stations such as Solar Star , Waldpolenz Solar Park and Topaz Solar Farm cover tens or hundreds of hectares and have power outputs up to hundreds of megawatts . A small PV system is capable of providing enough AC electricity to power

6432-460: Is the predominant material used in 90 percent of worldwide produced solar modules, while its rival thin-film has lost market-share. About 70 percent of all solar cells and modules are produced in China and Taiwan, only 5 percent by European and US- manufacturers . The installed capacity for both small rooftop systems and large solar power stations is growing rapidly and in equal parts, although there

6566-583: Is today the Hotel Thomas, postal coach horses on the Koblenz-Trier stretch of the road were changed. Another origin of Hasborn is believed to have lain in the now long vanished village of Ritzeroth, which supposedly lay in a side valley of the Sammetbach along what is now the road to Oberscheidweiler. The village's existence has only been handed down orally. It might have died out in the Plague during

6700-512: Is used, the so-called energy payback time decreases to one year or less. Net metering and financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-generated electricity, have also greatly supported installations of PV systems in many countries. The levelised cost of electricity from large-scale PV systems has become competitive with conventional electricity sources in an expanding list of geographic regions, and grid parity has been achieved in about 30 countries. As of 2015,

6834-674: Is west/southwest. A relatively dry and milder climate prevails in the wind and rain shadow of the High Eifel. Cold air from Siberia in the higher elevations of the Eifel has less of an impact on weather conditions, as the proximity of the Atlantic Ocean to the Eifel brings milder sea air to the Eifel even in winter. Looking at the long-term averages, even the Snow Eifel only has snow cover for nine consecutive days in winter, as there are no longer lasting cold spells. However, there

SECTION 50

#1732802597411

6968-615: The Cambrian and are around 550 million years old. The Eifel is one of the few volcanically active areas of Germany, as is evinced by numerous discharges of carbonic acid , for example into the Laacher See . The last eruptions, which gave rise to the most recent maars , occurred about 11,000  years ago. The basement in the Eifel, as in the other regions of the Rhenish Massif , consists mainly of Devonian slates , sandstones and limestones , laid down in an ocean south of

7102-497: The Deutsche Stiftung Denkmalschutz (“German Monument Protection Foundation”). Today it is a cultural centre used for events such as exhibitions, concerts, readings and theatre. Saint Roch's New Church ( Neue Kirche Sankt Rochus ) is a new, modern church with a tent roof in the old oak grove. It was consecrated in 1968. The architect was Böhr from Trier. It has a great organ built by Alfred Führer that

7236-822: The German Wildlife Route and the South Eifel Holiday Route. Due to its moist and mild Atlantic climate, the Eifel is bisected by numerous streams and small rivers. Impoundment of these streams, especially in the North Eifel has led to the creation of very large reservoir , such as the Rursee , which is the second largest in Germany by volume, and the Urftsee . A feature of the Eifel are its natural lakes of volcanic origin. The largest,

7370-645: The Handbook of the Natural Region Divisions of Germany , divided into three major unit (i.e. two-digit) groups and these were subdivided into (three-digit) major natural units. These divisions were subsequently refined in the individual map sheets Trier/Mettendorf , Cochem (both 1974) and Cologne/Aachen (1978) as follows; for the most detailed natural region divisions in Rhineland-Palatinate, fact files were produced by

7504-521: The Hasborner Sauerbrunnen (“Hasborn Sour Spring”), a spring emerging from, and also encased in, Devonian stone. The springwater is brown in colour and tastes sourish. Responsible for the colour is dissolved iron , and for the taste, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) of volcanic origin. The oak grove is a stand of oaktrees in the middle of Hasborn almost 400 years old that is unique in Germany. The local lore has it that it came to be during

7638-617: The Laacher See , is a collapsed, water-filled caldera , whilst the many maars are water-filled volcanic eruption bowls. The largest maar lake is the Pulvermaar . The Meerfelder Maar has an even bigger basin, but three-quarters of it has silted up. The many rivers and streams of the Eifel drain into the North Sea via the great rivers outside of the Eifel: the Rhine (and its tributary,

7772-569: The Middle Ages . Today only the cadastral name “Reizat” recalls this vanished village. Beginning in 1794, Hasborn lay under French rule. In 1814 it was assigned to the Kingdom of Prussia at the Congress of Vienna . Since 1947, it has been part of the then newly founded state of Rhineland-Palatinate . The council is made up of 12 council members, who were elected by majority vote at

7906-578: The Moselle ) and the Meuse (with its tributaries, the Rur and Ourthe ). The rivers and streams within the mountain range, together with their larger tributaries, are as follows: Rhine tributaries: Meuse tributaries: Reservoirs Volcanic lakes Despite the interesting geology of the Eifel region, only three comprehensive geological accounts have been produced. In 1822, Johann Steiniger published

8040-606: The Old Red Continent and folded and overthrust in the Variscan orogeny. Only on the northern edge of the Eifel, in the High Fens and its environs, do older rocks from the Cambrian and Ordovician outcrop. Rocks of the Carboniferous do not occur in the Eifel itself, but lie along its northern boundary in the region of Aachen . The Devonian rocks were deposited in an oceanic basin , in which erosion debris

8174-614: The Sahara desert, with less cloud cover and a better solar angle, one could ideally obtain closer to 8.3 kWh/m /day provided the nearly ever present wind would not blow sand onto the units. The area of the Sahara desert is over 9 million km . 90,600 km , or about 1%, could generate as much electricity as all of the world's power plants combined. Modules are assembled into arrays on some kind of mounting system, which may be classified as ground mount, roof mount or pole mount. For solar parks

SECTION 60

#1732802597411

8308-738: The Schwarzer Mann in the Schnee-Eifel , stand out from a long way off as long, forested ridges or clearly isolated mountaintops. The highest mountain in the whole Eifel is the Hohe Acht at 746.9 m. It is the only Eifel summit above 700 m. However, many peaks, mountain ridges and large regions, such as the Zitterwald reach heights of over 600 m. These include two dozen peaks with good all-round views, of which many have an observation tower . From north to south they are:

8442-491: The Thirty Years' War when marauding bands made it impossible for the farmers to drive their swine to pasture in the surrounding oak forests. Instead, the villagers gathered acorns together in the woods and then cast them at the edge of the village to the animals as fodder. Some acorns were worked into the ground by the creatures, leading to growth. The Schanzley is a steep crag high over the Sammetbach valley lying deep in

8576-455: The diphthong and the syllable , -fel . The resulting root form Anfil or Anfali would then mean an "area that is not so level". An - would then be a prefix and -fali , which is related to the Slavic polje ("field"), means "plain" or "heath". W. Kaspers (1938) deduces from the surviving form in pago aquilinse the root form aku-ella, akwella and points to its development into

8710-442: The direct current (DC) from the solar modules to AC. Grid connected inverters must supply AC electricity in sinusoidal form, synchronized to the grid frequency, limit feed in voltage to no higher than the grid voltage and disconnect from the grid if the grid voltage is turned off. Islanding inverters need only produce regulated voltages and frequencies in a sinusoidal waveshape as no synchronisation or co-ordination with grid supplies

8844-466: The electrical grid , while off-grid systems are somewhat more common in Australia and South Korea. PV systems rarely use battery storage. This may change, as government incentives for distributed energy storage are implemented and investments in storage solutions gradually become economically viable for small systems. In the UK, the number of commercial systems using battery storage is gradually increasing as

8978-606: The fast-growing global PV market is rapidly approaching the 200 GW mark – about 40 times the installed capacity in 2006. These systems currently contribute about 1 percent to worldwide electricity generation. Top installers of PV systems in terms of capacity are currently China, Japan and the United States, while half of the world's capacity is installed in Europe, with Germany and Italy supplying 7% to 8% of their respective domestic electricity consumption with solar PV. The International Energy Agency expects solar power to become

9112-445: The power grid , in which case the energy produced by the PV array can be sold back to the utility in some sort of net metering agreement. Some utilities use the rooftops of commercial customers and telephone poles to support their use of PV panels. Solar trees are arrays that, as the name implies, mimic the look of trees, provide shade, and at night can function as street lights . Uncertainties in revenue over time relate mostly to

9246-463: The "sunbelt" region of the planet. Large utility-scale solar parks or farms are power stations and capable of providing an energy supply to large numbers of consumers. Generated electricity is fed into the transmission grid powered by central generation plants (grid-connected or grid-tied plant), or combined with one, or many, domestic electricity generators to feed into a small electrical grid (hybrid plant). In rare cases generated electricity

9380-590: The British Standard BS 7671 , incorporating regulations relating to microgeneration and photovoltaic systems, and the US UL4703 standard, in subject 4703 "Photovoltaic Wire". A solar cable is the interconnection cable used in photovoltaic power generation. Solar cables interconnect solar panels and other electrical components of a photovoltaic system. Solar cables are designed to be UV resistant and weather resistant. They can be used within

9514-462: The Earth's surface from the upper regions of the Earth's mantle or, in the majority of cases, gathers in a magma chamber, several tens of kilometres deep, at the base of the Earth's crust , from which magma rises at irregular intervals and causes volcanic eruptions. Volcanism in the Eifel is thought to be partly caused by the Eifel hotspot , a place where hot material from deep in the mantle rises to

9648-483: The Eifel on the Weißer Stein . The mean temperature in the coldest month (January) is -1.5 °C at high elevations, +1.5 to 2 °C in the mountain foreland. There is an average of 110 days of frost, with temperatures below 0 °C in the highlands and an average of 30 to 40 'ice days' when temperatures do not rise above 0 °C. The warmest month (July) only has an average temperature of 14 °C in

9782-577: The High Eifel came to an end about 15 to 20 million years ago, at the same time as that of the Siebengebirge. Volcanism in the western and eastern Eifel is, in contrast to that of the High Eifel, much more recent than that of the Siebengebirge and Westerwald. It began in the West Eifel region of Daun, Hillesheim and Gerolstein about 700,000 years ago and created a chain of ash volcanoes, cinder cones , maars and craters running in

9916-488: The Maare-Moselle Cycle Path ( Maare-Mosel-Radweg ) and is signposted. In Hasborn is found one of Rhineland-Palatinate's biggest photovoltaic complexes . In 2008, in an area of 23 ha, state-of-the-art elements were installed, right next to the high-grade woodyard. At the DJK Hasborn e.V., a sport club with more than 500 members, football , tennis , gymnastics and volleyball are practised. In Hasborn are found

10050-957: The Michelsberg, Häuschen and Teufelsley in the north; the Adert, Hohe Acht and Raßberg in the northeast; the Hochkel, Nerotherkopf, Dietzenley and ruins of the Kasselburg in the central area; the Prümer Kalvarienberg, Hartkopf and Prümer Kopf in the east, the Steineberg and Mäuseberg near Daun, the Hochsimmer and Scheidkopf near Mayen; the Eickelslay and Absberg in the southeast; and the Krautscheid and Hohe Kuppe in

10184-540: The World Wide Web, such as OSOTF . Knowing the annual energy consumption in Kwh E d {\displaystyle E_{d}} of an institution or a family, for example of 2300Kwh, legible in its electricity bill, it is possible to calculate the number of photovoltaic panels necessary to satisfy its energy needs. By connecting to the site https://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvg_tools/en/ , after selecting

10318-711: The area around Hillesheim and Oberbettingen . In the Upper Cretaceous and during the Tertiary , the Eifel was inundated mainly from the north. Remains of Cretaceous rocks were discovered on the High Fens. Scattered patches of Oligocene deposits can be found there and in the Western Eifel. From the Pliocene onwards, the Rhenish Massif, including the Eifel, experienced an uplift. This led to

10452-481: The basis of a significant mining activity for the extraction of building materials since Roman times. Some of the hills are volcanic vents. The peculiar circle-shaped lakes ( maars ) of the volcanic regions formed in volcanic craters. The first volcanic eruptions took place in the early Tertiary centred in the High Eifel and even before the volcanic activity of the Siebengebirge and Westerwald . Volcanism in

10586-577: The cities of Aachen to the north, Trier to the south and Koblenz to the east. It descends in the northeast along a line from Aachen via Düren to Bonn into the Lower Rhine Bay . In the east and south it is bounded by the valleys of the Rhine and the Moselle . To the west it transitions in Belgium and Luxembourg into the geologically related Ardennes and the Luxembourg Ösling . In

10720-506: The data from the inverter or retrieve all of the data from the communicating equipment (probes, meters, etc.). Monitoring tools can be dedicated to supervision only or offer additional functions. Individual inverters and battery charge controllers may include monitoring using manufacturer specific protocols and software. Energy metering of an inverter may be of limited accuracy and not suitable for revenue metering purposes. A third-party data acquisition system can monitor multiple inverters, using

10854-446: The desired voltage ; the individual strings are then connected in parallel to allow the system to produce more current . Solar panels are typically measured under STC (standard test conditions) or PTC (PVUSA test conditions), in watts . Typical panel ratings range from less than 100 watts to over 400 watts. The array rating consists of a summation of the panel ratings, in watts, kilowatts, or megawatts. A typical 150 watt PV module

10988-671: The edge of the Eifel and formed larger valleys. The Eifel covers an area of 5,300 km and is geographically divided into the North and South Eifel. It is further divided into several natural regional landscapes, some with further subdivisions. Since 2004, part of the North Eifel has been designated as the Eifel National Park . There are also four nature parks in the Eifel (from north to south): Rhineland , High Fens-Eifel , Volcanic Eifel , and South Eifel , although

11122-438: The effects of shading and only lose the power that the shaded portion of the array would have supplied, as well as the power dissipated in the diodes. The main job of the bypass diode is to eliminate hot spots that form on cells that can cause further damage to the array, and cause fires. Sunlight can be absorbed by dust, snow, or other impurities at the surface of the module (collectively referred to as soiling ). Soiling reduces

11256-532: The energy gained by using tracking systems can outweigh the added complexity. For very large systems , the added maintenance of tracking is a substantial detriment. Tracking is not required for flat panel and low-concentration photovoltaic systems . For high-concentration photovoltaic systems, dual axis tracking is a necessity. Pricing trends affect the balance between adding more stationary solar panels versus having fewer panels that track. As pricing, reliability and performance of single-axis trackers have improved,

11390-473: The evaluation of the solar resource and to the performance of the system itself. In the best of cases, uncertainties are typically 4% for year-to-year climate variability, 5% for solar resource estimation (in a horizontal plane), 3% for estimation of irradiation in the plane of the array, 3% for power rating of modules, 2% for losses due to dirt and soiling , 1.5% for losses due to snow, and 5% for other sources of error. Identifying and reacting to manageable losses

11524-414: The fact that most of the world is not on the equator, and that the sun sets in the evening, the correct measure of solar power is insolation – the average number of kilowatt-hours per square meter per day. For the weather and latitudes of the United States and Europe, typical insolation ranges from 2.26 kWh/m /day in northern climes to 5.61 kWh/m /day in the sunniest regions. For large systems,

11658-465: The first extends only partly into the northern foothills of the Eifel. There are several distinct chains within the Eifel. Since 2004, about 110 km of the Eifel within the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia have been protected as the Eifel National Park nature reserve . Up to 1960, the German part of the Eifel, which belonged to the natural region of the Rhenish Massif , was, according to

11792-555: The first geological map of the area and, in 1853, the Geognostische Beschreibung der Eifel . In 1915 Otto Follmann published a new account, adding to the extent of scientific understanding at that time, the Abriss der Geologie der Eifel ("Abstract of the geology of the Eifel region". In 1986, Wilhelm Meyer finally published the volume, Geologie der Eifel ("Geology of the Eifel"), whose fourth, revised, edition

11926-539: The forest and therefore hard to find. At the municipal limit with Willwerscheid is found an old, disused coppermine called Neuglück. The entrance is barred by a gate in the mountain, but one can see into the gallery. Saint Roch's Old Chapel ( Alte Kapelle Sankt Rochus ) has a high altar from about 1700 (Dehio). It is a former parish church from 1775 with Stations of the Cross. In 1967 it was deconsecrated and in 1997 and 1998 it underwent renovation both inside and outside by

12060-404: The grid requires the transformation of DC into AC by a special, synchronizing grid-tie inverter . In kilowatt-sized installations the DC side system voltage is as high as permitted (typically 1000 V except US residential 600 V) to limit ohmic losses. Most modules (60 or 72 crystalline silicon cells) generate 160 W to 300 W at 36 volts. It is sometimes necessary or desirable to connect

12194-558: The higher areas. The level of precipitation decreases significantly from west to east as a result of the rain shadow of the highlands. So the Schneifel receives an average of 1,200 mm of precipitation ( High Fens : 1,400 mm to 1,500 mm), while in Maifeld the average rainfall is only 600 mm. The bioclimatic conditions in the Eifel are favourable. Heat stress and air humidity are rarely present in summer. The Eifel has

12328-399: The inverter manufacturer's protocols, and also acquire weather-related information. Independent smart meters may measure the total energy production of a PV array system. Separate measures such as satellite image analysis or a solar radiation meter (a pyranometer ) can be used to estimate total insolation for comparison. Data collected from a monitoring system can be displayed remotely over

12462-423: The junction. This breakdown voltage in common cells is between 10 and 30 volts. Instead of adding to the power produced by the panel, the shaded cell absorbs power, turning it into heat. Since the reverse voltage of a shaded cell is much greater than the forward voltage of an illuminated cell, one shaded cell can absorb the power of many other cells in the string, disproportionately affecting panel output. For example,

12596-406: The large commercial and utility-scale market. Market-share for central and string inverters are about 44 percent and 52 percent, respectively, with less than 1 percent for micro-inverters. Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is a technique that grid connected inverters use to get the maximum possible power from the photovoltaic array. In order to do so, the inverter's MPPT system digitally samples

12730-400: The life of the PV system. In one study performed in a snow-rich area ( Ontario ), cleaning flat mounted solar panels after 15 months increased their output by almost 100%. However, 5° tilted arrays were adequately cleaned by rainwater. In many cases, especially in arid regions, or in locations in close proximity to deserts, roads, industry, or agriculture, regular cleaning of the solar panels

12864-424: The light that strikes the cells, which in turn reduces the power output of the PV system. Soiling losses aggregate over time, and can become large without adequate cleaning. In 2018, the global annual energy loss due to soiling was estimated to at least 3–4%. However, soiling losses vary significantly from region to region, and within regions. Maintaining a clean module surface will increase output performance over

12998-457: The location in which to install the panels or clicking on the map or typing the name of the location, you must select "Grid connected" and "Visualize results" obtaining the following table for example relating to the city of Palermo: Using the wxMaxima program, the number of panels required for an annual consumption of 2300 kWh and for a crystalline silicon technology with a slope angle of 35°, an azimut angle of 0° and total losses equal to 21.88%

13132-457: The lower energy and power density and therefore higher weight of lead-acid batteries are not as critical as, for example, in electric transportation Other rechargeable batteries considered for distributed PV systems include sodium–sulfur and vanadium redox batteries, two prominent types of a molten salt and a flow battery, respectively. In 2015, Tesla Motors launched the Powerwall ,

13266-471: The module efficiency. However, it was recently demonstrated that, in the real-world operation, considering a larger scale photovoltaic generator, increase in wind speed can increase the energy losses, following the fluid mechanics theory, as the wind interaction with the PV generator induces air flux variations that modify the heat transfer from the modules to the air. Effective module lives are typically 25 years or more. The payback period for an investment in

13400-460: The modules partially in parallel rather than all in series. An individual set of modules connected in series is known as a 'string'. A set of series-connected "strings" is known as an "array." Photovoltaic systems are generally categorized into three distinct market segments: residential rooftop, commercial rooftop, and ground-mount utility-scale systems. Their capacities range from a few kilowatts to hundreds of megawatts. A typical residential system

13534-411: The municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman. The municipality's arms might be described thus: Per fess, Or a demi-eagle displayed sable armed and langued gules, and azure an oak sprig embowed couped in sinister, fructed of one and leafed of three, all of the first. In the Sammetbach valley between Hasborn and Oberscheidweiler, right on the bank of the Sammetbach, lies

13668-499: The municipality's name means “Hasso’s Spring”. The village grew out of a farm that that Frank set up near where the former smithy, which was originally (until 1775) a church, later was. Running by this spring was once an old Roman road whose remnants can still be seen in a deep holloway known as der Holg (the standard German word for holloway is Hohlweg ). Given this, Hasso's farm might also have been an inn at which travellers rested or changed horses. Indeed, in later times, at what

13802-551: The name "Eifel" in the following sequence: aquila  > agfla  > aifla  > eifla  > Eifel . Akuella derives from the pre-German and means "land with summits" or "land with peaks". Photovoltaic system A photovoltaic system , also called a PV system or solar power system , is an electric power system designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics . It consists of an arrangement of several components, including solar panels to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity,

13936-642: The north it is limited by the Jülich-Zülpicher Börde . Within Germany it lies within the states of Rhineland-Palatinate and North Rhine-Westphalia; in the Benelux the area of Eupen , St. Vith and Luxembourg. Its highest point is the volcanic cone of the Hohe Acht (746.9 m). Originally the Carolingian Eifelgau only covered the smaller region roughly around the sources of the rivers Ahr , Kyll , Urft and Erft . Its name

14070-687: The northern and northwestern foothills of the present Eifel in the eastern half of the Arduenna silva of the Romans. West of the Eifelgau lay the Ardennengau , whose name was derived from Arduenna silva . Following the end of the Frankish Empire the name of the old gaue continued to be used in popular language. Over the centuries an ever-larger region was referred to as the Eifel. Today

14204-449: The old linking road between Trier and Koblenz. Buses run to Wittlich and Daun . Sons and daughters of the town: Eifel The Eifel ( German: [ˈaɪfl̩] ; Luxembourgish : Äifel , pronounced [ˈæːɪfəl] ) is a low mountain range in western Germany , eastern Belgium and northern Luxembourg . It occupies parts of southwestern North Rhine-Westphalia , northwestern Rhineland-Palatinate and

14338-416: The revenue measurement point, depending on whether the credited energy production is calculated independently of the customer's energy consumption ( feed-in tariff ) or only on the difference of energy ( net metering ). These systems vary in size from residential (2–10 kW p ) to solar power stations (up to tens of MW p ). This is a form of decentralized electricity generation . Feeding electricity into

14472-428: The shaded portion). When connected in series, the current drawn from a string of cells is no greater than the normally small current that can flow through the shaded cell, so the current (and therefore power) developed by the string is limited. If the external load is of low enough impedance, there may be enough voltage available from the other cells in a string to force more current through the shaded cell by breaking down

14606-404: The short‐circuit current, and of the maximum power to temperature changes. In this paper, comprehensive experimental guidelines to estimate the temperature coefficients. Due to the low voltage of an individual solar cell (typically ca. 0.5V), several cells are wired (see Copper in renewable energy#Solar photovoltaic power generation ) in series in the manufacture of a "laminate". The laminate

14740-670: The so-called Eifel North-South Zone. This is a region of subsidence , which runs from the Trier Bay in the south to the Lower Rhine Bay in the north. Through this zone existed at one time a sea link between north and south Central Europe. The remains of the sediments laid down at this time have survived to a greater extent in the Maubach- Mechernich Triassic Triangle in the north and in the Oberbettingen Triassic Graben in

14874-470: The solar array and a number of components often summarized as the balance of system (BOS). This term is synonymous with " Balance of plant " q.v. BOS-components include power-conditioning equipment and structures for mounting, typically one or more DC to AC power converters, also known as inverters , an energy storage device, a racking system that supports the solar array, electrical wiring and interconnections, and mounting for other components. Optionally,

15008-439: The solar array's ever changing power output and applies the proper impedance to find the optimal maximum power point . Anti-islanding is a protection mechanism to immediately shut down the inverter, preventing it from generating AC power when the connection to the load no longer exists. This happens, for example, in the case of a blackout. Without this protection, the supply line would become an "island" with power surrounded by

15142-521: The solar array; however, the inverter ultimately governs the amount of AC watts that can be distributed for consumption. For example, a PV system comprising 11 kilowatts DC (kW DC ) worth of PV modules, paired with one 10-kilowatt AC (kW AC ) inverter, will be limited to the inverter's output of 10 kW. As of 2019, conversion efficiency for state-of-the-art converters reached more than 98 percent. While string inverters are used in residential to medium-sized commercial PV systems, central inverters cover

15276-415: The solar panels, the visible part of the PV system, and does not include all the other hardware, often summarized as the balance of system (BOS). PV systems range from small, rooftop-mounted or building-integrated systems with capacities ranging from a few to several tens of kilowatts to large, utility-scale power stations of hundreds of megawatts. Nowadays, off-grid or stand-alone systems account for

15410-589: The southern area of the German-speaking Community of Belgium . The Eifel is part of the Rhenish Massif ; within its northern portions lies the Eifel National Park . The Eifelian stage in geological history is named after the region because rocks of that period reach the surface in the Eifel at the Wetteldorf Richtschnitt outcrop. The inhabitants of the Eifel are known as Eiflers or Eifelers . The Eifel lies between

15544-624: The southwest. The mountains and hills of the Eifel include the following (in order of height in metres above sea level ): (near Schwarzer Mann ) For a list of these and other Eifel mountains and hills see the List of mountains and hills of the Eifel . Many of these prominent points are linked by the Eifel-Ardennes Green Route , which crosses the east and south of the region, the German Volcano Route ,

15678-421: The state information system of the conservation administration (LANDIS): The BfN groups the 3 (two-digit) major unit groups under the combined group designated D45 . Apart from its valleys, the Eifel is a gently rolling plateau from which elongated mountain ridges and individual mountains rise. The majority of these summits do not attain a great height above the surrounding terrain. Several, however, like

15812-563: The streams and rivers cutting into the gently rolling landscape resulting in the present appearance of the low mountain range with its flat plateaus and deeply incised valleys. Due to numerous recent research projects, climate changes since the last ice age can be traced in detail in the Eifel region. Volcanic activity in the Eifel began 50 millions of years ago and continues into the geological present. It created numerous volcanic structures, lava flows and extensive layers of volcanic ejecta made of tuff and pumice , which have formed

15946-607: The sun from left to right may allow seasonal adjustment up or down. Due to their outdoor usage, solar cables are designed to be resistant against UV radiation and extremely high temperature fluctuations and are generally unaffected by the weather. Standards specifying the usage of electrical wiring in PV systems include the IEC 60364 by the International Electrotechnical Commission , in section 712 "Solar photovoltaic (PV) power supply systems",

16080-508: The sunlight, it receives more light on its surface than if it were angled. Second, direct light is used more efficiently than angled light. Special anti-reflective coatings can improve solar panel efficiency for direct and angled light, somewhat reducing the benefit of tracking. Trackers and sensors to optimise the performance are often seen as optional, but they can increase viable output by up to 45%. Arrays that approach or exceed one megawatt often use solar trackers. Considering clouds, and

16214-547: The surface, and partly by melt-ascent at deep fractures in the Earth's crust. Research has shown that the volcanism is still active; the Eifel region is rising by 1–2 mm per year and there are escaping gases, for example, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) in the Laacher See . The Eifel is in the Atlantic climate zone with its relatively high precipitation; winters that are moderately cold and long with periods of snow; and summers that are often humid and cool. The prevailing wind

16348-1001: The system's overall cost, leaving the rest to the remaining BOS components and to soft costs, which include customer acquisition, permitting, inspection and interconnection, installation labor, and financing costs. A photovoltaic system converts the Sun's radiation , in the form of light, into usable electricity . It comprises the solar array and the balance of system components. PV systems can be categorized by various aspects, such as, grid-connected vs. stand alone systems, building-integrated vs. rack-mounted systems, residential vs. utility systems, distributed vs. centralized systems, rooftop vs. ground-mounted systems, tracking vs. fixed-tilt systems, and new constructed vs. retrofitted systems. Other distinctions may include, systems with microinverters vs. central inverter, systems using crystalline silicon vs. thin-film technology , and systems with modules. About 99 percent of all European and 90 percent of all U.S. solar power systems are connected to

16482-467: The systems have been installed in an increasing percentage of utility-scale projects. According to data from WoodMackenzie/GTM Research, global solar tracker shipments hit a record 14.5 gigawatts in 2017. This represents growth of 32 percent year-over-year, with similar or greater growth projected as large-scale solar deployment accelerates. Systems designed to deliver alternating current (AC), such as grid-connected applications need an inverter to convert

16616-411: The tilt angle for maximum annual array energy output. The optimization of the photovoltaic system for a specific environment can be complicated as issues of solar flux, soiling, and snow losses should be taken into effect. In addition, later work has shown that spectral effects can play a role in optimal photovoltaic material selection. For example, the spectrum of the albedo of the surroundings can play

16750-400: The unique option of supplying reactive power which can be advantageous in matching load requirements. Photovoltaic systems need to be monitored to detect breakdown and optimize operation. There are several photovoltaic monitoring strategies depending on the output of the installation and its nature. Monitoring can be performed on site or remotely. It can measure production only, retrieve all

16884-401: The western Eifel. East Eifel volcanism came to an end with a huge eruption, as a result of which the magma chamber emptied and collapsed, creating a caldera . Today's Laacher See formed in the caldera. The ashes from the eruption can be detected today in deposits all over Central Europe and as far as Bornholm as a thin layer. Volcanism is caused by magma , which either rises directly to

17018-610: The western part of the plateau. In the eastern part, in the High Eifel and Volcanic Eifel , individual cinder cones and basalt kuppen , like the Hohe Acht and the Ernstberg , emerged as a result of volcanicity in the Tertiary and Quaternary periods and rise above the undulating countryside. The rivers draining into the Moselle , Rhine and Meuse , such as the Our , Kyll , Ahr , Brohlbach and Rur , have cut deep into

17152-615: The whole German-speaking part of the range between the Rhine, Meuse and Moselle is called the Eifel (including several areas outside of Germany, see the →  Belgian Eifel ), while the French-speaking part in Belgium and France is called the Ardennes . 762 Eifflensis pagus , 772 Eiffelnsis pagus , 804 in pago aquilinse , 838 Eifla , 845 Eiflensis pagus , 855 Eiflinsis pagus , 860–886 Agflinse , 975 Aiflensis pagus , 1051 Eiffila , 1105 Eifla , 1121 Eifla Müller/Schnetz (1937) believe that an -n- has dropped out between

17286-401: The world's largest source of electricity by 2050, with solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar thermal contributing 16% and 11% to the global demand, respectively. A grid connected system is connected to a larger independent grid (typically the public electricity grid) and feeds energy directly into the grid. This energy may be shared by a residential or commercial building before or after

17420-406: The world, mostly in Europe, with 1.4 million systems in Germany alone – as well as North America with 440,000 systems in the United States. The energy conversion efficiency of a conventional solar module increased from 15 to 20 percent since 2004 and a PV system recoups the energy needed for its manufacture in about 2 years. In exceptionally irradiated locations, or when thin-film technology

17554-697: Was called Arduenna silva ("high forest"). The oldest record of the name "Eifel" does not occur until the Early Middle Ages . Following the collapse of the West Roman Empire , the Frankish Empire emerged in the territories of present-day France and western Germany. This was divided into gaue (Lat.: pagi ). One of them, the Eifelgau , covered the source regions of the rivers Erft , Urft , Kyll and Ahr , i.e. predominantly

17688-475: Was more recently transferred to the entire region. The Eifel belongs to that part of the Rhenish Massif whose rolling plateau is categorised as peneplain highland ( Rumpfhochland ), which was formed by the erosion of the ancient mountains of the Variscan mountain building phase and subsequent further uplifting. Individual mountain chains, up to 700 m, such as the Schneifel and High Fens , run through

17822-557: Was once found in Bergkamen . The Hasborn Mill ( Hasborner Mühle ), standing on the Sammetbach and used until 1957 as a flour mill, has stood empty for the last few years. In Hasborn is found the Rhineland-Palatinate State Forests’ high-grade woodyard. In a broad area, all high-grade wood from far around is kept for inspection and auction. The way to the yard branches off the road to Niederöfflingen or

17956-756: Was washed in from the north from the great north continent of Euramerica ( Laurussia or the Old Red Continent ) which was formed by Caledonian mountain building during the Silurian . From the end of the Lower Carboniferous the sea basin was caught up in the Variscan mountain building process, pushed together and uplifted, and thus formed part of the Variscan mountain system that, in the Upper Carboniferous and early Permian , covered large areas of Europe. The Eifel geological structures like main folds and overthrusts can be traced in

#410589