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71-425: To distribute the compressive forces exerted on the heel during gait , and especially the stance phase when the heel contacts the ground, the sole of the foot is covered by a layer of subcutaneous connective tissue up to 2 cm thick (under the heel). This tissue has a system of pressure chambers that both acts as a shock absorber and stabilises the sole. Each of these chambers contains fibrofatty tissue covered by

142-417: A diaphragm , lizards and salamanders must expand and contract their body wall in order to force air in and out of their lungs, but these are the same muscles used to laterally undulate the body during locomotion. Thus, they cannot move and breathe at the same time, a situation called Carrier's constraint , though some, such as monitor lizards , can circumvent this restriction via buccal pumping . In contrast,

213-514: A "three-headed" group of muscles—the soleus and the two heads of the gastrocnemius . The main function of the triceps surae is plantar flexion , i.e. to stretch the foot downward. It is accompanied by a "fourth head", the slight plantaris muscle , the long slender tendon of which is also attached to the heel bone but not visible. The compressive forces applied to the foot are distributed along five rays, three medial (side of big toe) and two lateral (side of little toe). The lateral rays stretch over

284-487: A "walk", while those less than 50% are considered a run. Forelimb-hindlimb phase is the temporal relationship between the limb pairs. If the same-side forelimbs and hindlimbs initiate stance phase at the same time, the phase is 0 (or 100%). If the same-side forelimb contacts the ground half of the cycle later than the hindlimb, the phase is 50%. Gait choice can have effects beyond immediate changes in limb movement and speed, notably in terms of ventilation . Because they lack

355-422: A bounding gait). Lateral sequence gaits during walking and running are most common in mammals,[3] but arboreal mammals such as monkeys, some opossums, and kinkajous use diagonal sequence walks for enhanced stability.[3] Diagonal sequence walks and runs (aka trots) are most frequently used by sprawling tetrapods such as salamanders and lizards, due to the lateral oscillations of their bodies during movement. Bipeds are

426-498: A cart or the breast or legs of a horse tripped wires connected to an electromagnetic circuit. For a session on 15 June 1878, the press and a selection of turf men were invited to witness the process. An accident with a snapping strap was captured on the negatives and shown to the attendees, convincing even the most sceptical witnesses. The news of this success was reported worldwide. The Daily Alta California reported that Muybridge first exhibited magic lantern projected slides of

497-499: A changed man. Friends and associates later stated that he had changed from a smart and pleasant businessman into an eccentric artist. He was much more careless about his appearance, was easily agitated, could suddenly take objection to people and soon after act like nothing had happened, and he would regularly misstate previously-arranged business deals. His care about whether he judged something to be beautiful had become much stronger than his care for money; he easily refused payment if

568-631: A customer seemed to be slightly critical of his work. Photographer Silas Selleck, who had known Muybridge from New York since circa 1852 and had been a close friend since 1855, claimed that he could hardly recognize Muybridge after his return. Muybridge converted a lightweight two-wheel, one-horse carriage into a portable darkroom to carry out his work, and with a logo on the back dubbed it "Helios' Flying Studio". He had acquired highly proficient technical skills and an artist's eye, and became very successful in photography, focusing principally on landscape and architectural subjects. An 1868 advertisement stated

639-461: A dark room did not comply with the prescriptions for rest that Gull preferred to offer. On 28 September 1860, "E. Muggeridge, of New York" applied for British patent no. 2352 for "An improved method of, and apparatus for, plate printing" via London solicitor August Frederick Sheppard. On 1 August 1861, Muygridge received British patent no. 1914 for "Improvements in machinery or apparatus for washing clothes and other textile articles". On 28 October

710-494: A doctor in New York City. He fled the noise of the city and stayed in the countryside. He then went back to New York for six weeks and sued the stage company, which earned him a $ 2,500 compensation. Eventually, he felt well enough to travel to England, where he received medical care from Sir William Gull (who was also personal physician to Queen Victoria ), and was prescribed abstinence of meat, alcohol, and coffee for over

781-569: A heavy view camera and stacks of glass plate negatives. A stereograph he published in 1872 shows him sitting casually on a projecting rock over the Yosemite Valley, with 2,000 feet (610 m) of empty space below him. He returned with numerous stereoscopic views and larger plates. He selected 20 pictures to be retouched and manipulated for a subscription series that he announced in February 1868. Twenty original photographs (possibly

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852-399: A layer of tough connective tissue made of collagen fibers. These septa ("walls") are firmly attached both to the plantar aponeurosis above and the sole's skin below. The sole of the foot is one of the most highly vascularized regions of the body surface, and the dense system of blood vessels further stabilize the septa. The Achilles tendon is the muscle tendon of the triceps surae ,

923-442: A mechanism described by Giovanni Cavagna . In running, the kinetic and potential energy fluctuate in-phase, and the energy change is passed on to muscles , bones , tendons and ligaments acting as springs (thus it is described by the spring-mass model ). Speed generally governs gait selection, with quadrupedal mammals moving from a walk to a run to a gallop as speed increases. Each of these gaits has an optimum speed, at which

994-661: A medical student, which existed for about a year. He spent his first years importing and selling books from the UK, and became familiar with early photography through his acquaintance with New York daguerreotypist Silas T. Selleck. Muybridge arrived in New Orleans in January 1855, and was registered there as a book agent by April. Muybridge probably arrived in California around the autumn of 1855, when it had not yet been

1065-409: A new project that would convince everyone, they saw no need to prove that this image was authentic. The original negative has not yet resurfaced. In June 1878, Muybridge created sequential series of photographs, now with a battery of 12 cameras along the race track at Stanford's Palo Alto Stock Farm (now the campus of Stanford University ). The shutters were automatically triggered when the wheel of

1136-604: A photo gallery, right next to another bookstore. He partnered with W.H. Oakes as an engraver and publisher of lithograph prints, and still functioned as a book agent for the London Printing and Publishing Company. In April 1858, Muybridge moved his store to 163 Clay Street, where his friend Silas Selleck now had a photo gallery. Muygridge was a member of the Mechanic's Institute of the City of San Francisco. In 1859, he

1207-584: A renowned engineer, while Maybanke made fame as a suffragette. His paternal great-grandparents were Robert Muggeridge and Hannah Charman, who owned a farm. Their oldest son John Muggeridge (1756–1819) was Edward's grandfather; he was a stationer who taught Edward the business. Several uncles and cousins, including Henry Muggeridge (Sheriff of London), were corn merchants in the City of London. All were born in Banstead, Surrey. Edward's younger brother George, born in 1833, lived with their uncle Samuel in 1851, after

1278-455: A result of habitat differences. While various gaits are given specific names, the complexity of biological systems and interacting with the environment make these distinctions "fuzzy" at best. Gaits are typically classified according to footfall patterns, but recent studies often prefer definitions based on mechanics. The term typically does not refer to limb-based propulsion through fluid mediums such as water or air, but rather to propulsion across

1349-554: A solid substrate by generating reactive forces against it (which can apply to walking while underwater as well as on land). Due to the rapidity of animal movement, simple direct observation is rarely sufficient to give any insight into the pattern of limb movement. In spite of early attempts to classify gaits based on footprints or the sound of footfalls, it was not until Eadweard Muybridge and Étienne-Jules Marey began taking rapid series of photographs that proper scientific examination of gaits could begin. Milton Hildebrand pioneered

1420-526: A special announcement in the Bulletin newspaper: "I have this day sold to my brother, Thomas S. Muygridge, my entire stock of Books, Engravings, etc. (...) I shall on 5th June leave for New York, London, Berlin, Paris, Rome, and Vienna, etc.". Although he altered his plans, he eventually took a cross-country stagecoach on 2 July to catch a ship in New York. In July 1860, Muybridge suffered a head injury in

1491-630: A stagecoach crash in Texas . He spent the next few years recuperating in Kingston upon Thames, where he took up professional photography, learned the wet-plate collodion process, and secured at least two British patents for his inventions. He returned to San Francisco in 1867, a man with a markedly changed personality. In 1868, he exhibited large photographs of Yosemite Valley , and began selling popular stereographs of his work. In 1874, Muybridge shot and killed Major Harry Larkyns, his wife's lover, but

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1562-642: A state for more than five years . He visited the new state capital, Sacramento , as an agent selling illustrated Shakespeare books in April 1856, and soon after settled at 113 Montgomery Street in San Francisco. From this address he sold books and art (mostly prints), in a city that was still the booming "capital of the Gold Rush " in the " Wild West ". There were already 40 bookstores and a dozen photography studios in town, and he even shared his address with

1633-499: A time. While gaits can be classified by footfall, new work involving whole-body kinematics and force-plate records has given rise to an alternative classification scheme, based on the mechanics of the movement . In this scheme, movements are divided into walking and running. Walking gaits are all characterized by a "vaulting" movement of the body over the legs, frequently described as an inverted pendulum (displaying fluctuations in kinetic and potential energy which are out of phase),

1704-418: A time. This movement propagates from back to front on side of the body and then the opposite. Stick Insects, a larger hexapod, only shows a tripod gait during the larval stage. As adults at low speeds, they are most likely to walk in a metachronal wave, where only 1 leg swings at a time. At higher speeds, they walk in a tetrapod coordination with 2 legs paired in swing or a metachronal wave, only moving one leg at

1775-440: A unique case, and most bipeds will display only three gaits—walking, running, and hopping—during natural locomotion. Other gaits, such as human skipping, are not used without deliberate effort. Hexapod gaits have also been well characterized, particularly for drosophila and stick insects (Phasmatodea). Drosophila use a tripod gait where 3 legs swing together while 3 legs remain on the ground in stance. However, variability in gait

1846-419: A violent runaway stagecoach crash at the Texas border, which killed the driver and one passenger, and badly injured all other passengers. Muybridge was ejected from the vehicle and hit his head on a rock or another hard object. He woke up in a hospital bed at Fort Smith, Arkansas , with no recollection of the nine days after he had taken supper at a wayside cabin 150 miles (240 km) away, not long before

1917-511: A wager. However, it has been estimated that Stanford spent a total of $ 50,000 over the next several years to fund his investigations. In 1873, Muybridge managed to use a single camera to shoot a small and very fuzzy picture of the racehorse Occident running, at Union Park racetrack in Sacramento . Because of the insensitivity of the photographic emulsions used, early pictures were little more than blurry silhouettes . They both agreed that

1988-490: A wide scope of subjects: "Helios is prepared to accept commissions to photograph Private Residences, Ranches, Mills, Views, Animals, Ships, etc., anywhere in the city, or any portion of the Pacific Coast. Architects', Surveyors' and Engineers' Drawings copied mathamatically ( sic ) correct. Photographic copies of Paintings and Works of Art." Muybridge constantly tinkered with his cameras and chemicals, trying to improve

2059-538: A year. Gull also recommended rest and outdoor activities, and considering a change in profession. Muybridge stayed with his mother in Kennington and later with his aunt while in England. Muybridge later stated that he had become a photographer at the suggestion of Gull. However, while outdoors photography might have helped in getting some fresh air, dragging around heavy equipment and working with chemicals in

2130-417: Is continuous. Flies do not show distinct transitions between gaits but are more likely to walk in a tripod configuration at higher speeds. At lower speeds, they are more likely to walk with 4 or 5 legs in stance. Tetrapod coordination (when 4 legs are in stance) is where diagonally opposite pairs of legs swing together. Wave (sometimes called a metachronal wave) describes walking where only 1 leg enters swing at

2201-413: Is the pattern of movement of the limbs of animals , including humans , during locomotion over a solid substrate. Most animals use a variety of gaits, selecting gait based on speed, terrain , the need to maneuver , and energetic efficiency. Different animal species may use different gaits due to differences in anatomy that prevent use of certain gaits, or simply due to evolved innate preferences as

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2272-607: The Lighthouse Tender Shubrick to document these structures. In 1873, Muybridge was commissioned by the US Army to photograph the " Modoc War " dispute with the Native American tribe in northern California and Oregon . A number of these photographs were carefully staged and posed for maximum effect, despite the long exposures required by the slow photographic emulsions of the time. In 1872,

2343-417: The cuboid bone to the heel bone and the medial rays over the three cuneiform bones and the navicular bone to the ankle bone . Because the ankle bone is placed over the heel bone, these rays are adjacent near the toes but overriding near the heel, and together they form the arches of the foot that are optimized to distributed compressive forces across an uneven terrain. In this context the heel thus forms

2414-413: The orbitofrontal cortex that probably also extended into the anterior temporal lobes, which may have led to some of the emotional, eccentric behaviour reported by friends in later years, as well as freeing his creativity from conventional social inhibitions. Today, there is still little effective treatment for this kind of injury. Muybridge was treated at Fort Smith for three weeks before he went to

2485-480: The wet-plate collodion process in England, and was possibly influenced by some of well-known English photographers of those years, such as Julia Margaret Cameron , Lewis Carroll , and Roger Fenton . However, it remains unclear how much he had already learned before the accident and how much he may have learned after his return to the United States. Muybridge returned to San Francisco on 13 February 1867

2556-612: The 21 October 1868 Hayward earthquake . During the construction of the San Francisco Mint in 1870–1872, Muybridge made a series of images of the building's progress, documenting changes over time in a fashion similar to time-lapse photography . These images may have attracted the attention of Leland Stanford , who would later hire Muybridge to develop an unprecedented series of photos spaced in time. From June to November 1867, Muybridge visited Yosemite Valley . He took enormous safety risks to make his photographs, using

2627-610: The French version of this patent was registered. He wrote a letter to his uncle Henry, who had immigrated to Sydney (Australia), with details of the patents and he also mentioned having to visit Europe for business for several months. Muygridge's inventions (or rather: improved machinery) were demonstrated at the 1862 International Exhibition . Muybridge's activities and whereabouts between 1862 and 1865 are not very well documented. He turned up in Paris in 1862 and again in 1864. In 1865 he

2698-492: The accident. He suffered from a bad headache, double vision, deafness, loss of taste and smell, and confusion. It was later claimed that his hair turned from black to grey in three days. The problems persisted fully for three months and to a lesser extent for a year. Arthur P. Shimamura , an experimental psychologist at the University of California, Berkeley , has speculated that Muybridge suffered substantial injuries to

2769-460: The beginning and end of stance phase of three limbs relative to a cycle of a reference limb, usually the left hindlimb . Gaits are generally classed as "symmetrical" and "asymmetrical" based on limb movement. These terms have nothing to do with left-right symmetry . In a symmetrical gait, the left and right limbs of a pair alternate, while in an asymmetrical gait, the limbs move together. Asymmetrical gaits are sometimes termed "leaping gaits", due to

2840-696: The capturing of ever-faster motion. In 1868, Muybridge was commissioned by the US government to travel to the newly acquired US territory of Alaska to photograph the Tlingit Native Americans, occasional Russian inhabitants, and dramatic landscapes. In 1871, the United States Lighthouse Board hired Muybridge to photograph lighthouses of the American West Coast. From March to July, he travelled aboard

2911-469: The contemporary scientific analysis and the classification of gaits. The movement of each limb was partitioned into a stance phase, where the foot was in contact with the ground, and a swing phase, where the foot was lifted and moved forwards. Each limb must complete a cycle in the same length of time , otherwise one limb's relationship to the others can change with time, and a steady pattern cannot occur. Thus, any gait can completely be described in terms of

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2982-445: The death of their father in 1843. At the age of 20, Muybridge decided to seek his fortune. He turned down an offer of money from his grandmother, saying "No, thank you Grandma, I'm going to make a name for myself. If I fail, you will never hear of me again." Muybridge immigrated to the United States, arriving in New York City in 1850. Here, he was possibly a partner in the book business enterprise Muygridge & Bartlett together with

3053-506: The developing fields of scientific and industrial photography. He retired to his native England permanently in 1894. In 1904, the year of his death, the Kingston Museum opened in his hometown, and continues to house a substantial collection of his works in a dedicated gallery. Edward James Muggeridge was born and raised in England. Muggeridge changed his name several times, starting with "Muggridge". From 1855 to 1865, he mainly used

3124-518: The differences in leg number shown in terrestrial vertebrates , according to the inverted pendulum model of walking and spring-mass model of running, "walks" and "runs" are seen in animals with 2, 4, 6, or more legs. The term "gait" has even been applied to flying and swimming organisms that produce distinct patterns of wake vortices . Eadweard Muybridge Eadweard Muybridge ( / ˌ ɛ d w ər d ˈ m aɪ b r ɪ dʒ / ; 9 April 1830 – 8 May 1904, born Edward James Muggeridge )

3195-762: The flexible perforated film strip used in cinematography . From 1883 to 1886, he entered a very productive period at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia , producing over 100,000 images of animals and humans in motion, occasionally capturing what the human eye could not distinguish as separate moments in time. In his later years, Muybridge gave many public lectures and demonstrations of his photography and early motion picture sequences, travelling frequently in England and Europe to publicise his work in cities such as London and Paris. He also edited and published compilations of his work (some of which are still in print today), which greatly influenced visual artists and

3266-410: The former governor of California , Leland Stanford , a businessman and race-horse owner, hired Muybridge for a portfolio depicting his mansion and other possessions, including his racehorse Occident. Stanford also wanted a proper picture of the horse at full speed, and was frustrated that the existing depictions and descriptions seemed incorrect. The human eye could not fully break down the action at

3337-486: The ground floor of their house adjacent to the River Thames at No. 30 High Street. The family lived in the rooms above. After his father died in 1843, his mother carried on the business. His younger cousins Norman Selfe (1839–1911) and Maybanke Anderson (née Selfe; 1845–1927), also spent part of their childhood in Kingston upon Thames. They moved to Australia and Norman, following a family tradition. Selfe became

3408-501: The image lacked quality, but Stanford was excited to finally have a reliable depiction of a running horse. No copy of this earliest image has yet resurfaced. Muybridge promised to study better solutions, but his work on higher-speed photography would take several years to develop, and was also delayed by events in his personal life. With the aid of engineers and technicians from the Central Pacific Railroad (Stanford

3479-432: The long-footed mammals, both the hoofed species ( unguligrade ) and the clawed forms which walk on the toes ( digitigrade ), the heel is well above the ground at the apex of the angular joint known as the hock . In plantigrade species, it rests on the ground. In birds, the heel is the backward-pointing joint which is often mistaken as the " knee " (the actual knee of birds is hidden under the plumage). Gait Gait

3550-440: The minimum calories per metre are consumed, and costs increase at slower or faster speeds. Gait transitions occur near the speed where the cost of a fast walk becomes higher than the cost of a slow run. Unrestrained animals will typically move at the optimum speed for their gait to minimize energy cost. The cost of transport is used to compare the energetics of different gaits, as well as the gaits of different animals. In spite of

3621-672: The newly acquired Alaskan Territory , subjects involved in the Modoc War , and lighthouses on the West Coast . He also made his early "moving" picture studies in California. Born in Kingston upon Thames , Surrey , England, at the age of 20 he emigrated to the United States as a bookseller, first to New York City , then to San Francisco. In 1860, he planned a return trip to Europe, but suffered serious head injuries en route in

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3692-675: The photographer advertised his works under the name "Eduardo Santiago Muybridge" in Guatemala . After an 1882 trip to England, he changed the spelling of his first name to "Eadweard", the Old English form of his name. The spelling was probably derived from the spelling of King Edward's Christian name as shown on the plinth of the Kingston coronation stone , which had been re-erected in 1850 in Muybridge's hometown, 100 yards from his childhood family home. He used "Eadweard Muybridge" for

3763-592: The photographs at the San Francisco Art Association on 8 July 1878. Newspapers were not yet able to reproduce detailed photographs, so the images were widely printed as woodcut engravings. Scientific American was among the publications at the time that carried reports and engravings of Muybridge's groundbreaking images. Six different series were soon published as cabinet cards, entitled The Horse in Motion . Many people were amazed at

3834-404: The posterior point of support that together with the balls of the large and little toes bear the brunt of the loads. Cracked heels is a common health problem and it may cause infections . It is caused by dryness of the foot skin, and accumulation of dead skin . Over time, it may cause pain and irritations. Various moisturising creams and foot files are available to cure and prevent it. In

3905-422: The presence of a suspended phase. The key variables for gait are the duty factor and the forelimb -hindlimb phase relationship. Duty factor is simply the percent of the total cycle which a given foot is on the ground. This value will usually be the same for forelimbs and hindlimbs unless the animal is moving with a specially trained gait or is accelerating or decelerating . Duty factors over 50% are considered

3976-400: The previously unseen positions of the horse's legs in action, particularly the fact that a running horse had all four hooves in the air at regular intervals. This did not take place when the horse's legs were extended to the front and back, as imagined by illustrators of the time, but when its legs were collected beneath its body as it switched from "pulling" with the front legs to "pushing" with

4047-399: The quick gaits of the trot and gallop . Up until this time, most artists painted horses at a trot with one foot always on the ground; and at a full gallop with the front legs extended forward and the hind legs extended to the rear, and all feet off the ground. There are stories that Stanford had made a $ 25,000 bet on his theories about horse locomotion, but no evidence has been found of such

4118-432: The rest of his career. Others frequently misspelled his surname as "Maybridge", "Moybridge", or "Mybridge". His gravestone carries his name as "Eadweard Maybridge". Edward James Muggeridge was born in Kingston upon Thames , in the county of Surrey in England (now Greater London), on 9 April 1830 to John and Susanna Muggeridge; he had three brothers. His father was a grain and coal merchant , with business spaces on

4189-737: The sales appeal of his pictures. In 1869, he patented a "sky shade" to reduce the tendency of intense blue outdoors skies to bleach out the images of the blue-sensitive photographic emulsions of the time. An article published in 2017 and an expanded book document that Muybridge heavily edited and modified his photos, inserting clouds or the moon, even adding volcanos to his pictures for artistic effects. Helios produced over 400 different stereograph cards, initially sold through Seleck's Cosmopolitan Gallery at 415 Montgomery Street, and later through other distributors, such as Bradley & Rulofson . Many of these cards showed views of San Francisco and its surroundings. Stereo cards were extremely popular at

4260-514: The same) were used to illustrate John S. Hittel's guide book Yosemite: Its Wonders and Its Beauties (1868). Some of the pictures were taken of the same scenes shot by his contemporary Carleton Watkins . Muybridge's photographs showed the grandeur and expansiveness of the West; if human figures were portrayed, they were dwarfed by their surroundings, as in Chinese landscape paintings . In comparing

4331-525: The spinal flexion of a galloping mammal causes the abdominal viscera to act as a piston, inflating and deflating the lungs as the animal's spine flexes and extends, increasing ventilation and allowing greater oxygen exchange . Animals typically use different gaits in a speed-dependent manner. Almost all animals are capable of symmetrical gaits, while asymmetrical gaits are largely confined to mammals, who are capable of enough spinal flexion to increase stride length (though small crocodilians are capable of using

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4402-401: The still-fuzzy picture, he had it recreated by a retouch artist and published as a cabinet card . The news about this breakthrough in instantaneous photography was spread enthusiastically, but several critics believed that the heavily-manipulated image could not be a truthful depiction of the horse. Muybridge allowed reporters to study the original negative, but as he and Stanford were planning

4473-530: The styles of the two photographers, Watkins has been called "a classicist, making serene, stately pictures of a still, eternal world of beauty", while Muybridge was "a romantic who sought out the uncanny, the unsettling, the uncertain". In the 21st century there have been claims that many landscape photos attributed to Muybridge were actually made by or under the close guidance of Watkins, but these claims are disputed. Regardless, Muybridge started to develop his own leading-edge innovations in photography, especially in

4544-478: The surname "Muygridge". From 1865 onward, he used the surname "Muybridge". In addition, he used the pseudonym Helios (Titan of the sun) for his early photography. He also used this as the name of his studio and gave it to his only son, as a middle name: Florado Helios Muybridge, born in 1874. While travelling in 1875 on a photography expedition in the Spanish-speaking nations of Central America,

4615-412: The time and thus could be sold in large quantities for a very low price, to tourists as a souvenir, or to proud citizens and collectors. Early in his new career, Muybridge was hired by Robert B. Woodward (1824–1879) to take extensive photos of his Woodward's Gardens , a combination amusement park, zoo, museum, and aquarium that had opened in San Francisco in 1866. Muybridge took pictures of ruins after

4686-420: The time since and all of the time since 1860 (...) had been diligently, and at the same time studiously, been engaged in photography". Edward's brother George Muybridge came to San Francisco in 1858 but died of tuberculosis soon after. Their youngest brother Thomas S. Muygridge arrived in 1859, and it soon became clear that Edward planned to stop operating his bookstore business. On 15 May 1860, Edward published

4757-535: Was acquitted, in a controversial jury trial, on the grounds of justifiable homicide . In 1875, he travelled for more than a year in Central America on a photographic expedition. Muybridge is known for his pioneering chronophotography of animal locomotion between 1878 and 1886, which used multiple cameras to capture the different positions in a stride; and for his zoopraxiscope , a device for projecting painted motion pictures from glass discs that predated

4828-400: Was an English photographer known for his pioneering work in photographic studies of motion , and early work in motion-picture projection . He adopted the first name "Eadweard" as the original Anglo-Saxon form of "Edward", and the surname "Muybridge", believing it to be similarly archaic. A noted photographer in the 19th century American West, he photographed Yosemite , San Francisco ,

4899-552: Was elected as one of the directors for the San Francisco Mercantile Library Association. Muybridge sold original landscape photography by Carleton Watkins , as well as photographic copies of paintings. It remains uncertain whether or not Muygridge personally made such copies, or familiarized himself with photographic techniques in any fashion before 1860, although Muybridge claimed in 1881 that he "came to California in 1855, and most of

4970-596: Was one of the directors for the Austin Consolidated Silver Mines Company (limited) and for The Ottoman Company (limited)/The Bank of Turkey (limited), under his new name "Muybridge". Both enterprises were very short-lived due to the Panic of 1866 , and Muybridge chaired the meetings in which the companies were dissolved during the spring of 1866. Muybridge may have taken up photography sometime between 1861 and 1866. He possibly learned

5041-411: Was one of the founding directors), Muybridge experimented with ever-faster mechanical shutters, and began developing state-of-the-art electrically-triggered mechanisms. He also experimented with more sensitive photographic emulsions to work with the shorter exposure times. In July 1877, Muybridge made a new picture of Occident at full speed, with improved techniques and a much clearer result. To enhance

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