The Botanical and Zoological Codes of nomenclature treat the concept of synonymy differently.
68-531: Hijiki ( ヒジキ, 鹿尾菜 or 羊栖菜 , hijiki ) ( Sargassum fusiforme , syn . Hizikia fusiformis ), sometimes called hiziki , is a brown sea vegetable that grows wild on the rocky coastlines of East Asia. Hijiki has been a part of the Japanese culinary sphere and diet for centuries. It is rich in dietary fiber and essential minerals such as calcium, iron, and magnesium. According to Japanese folklore , hijiki aids health and beauty, and thick, black, lustrous hair
136-493: A nomen oblitum , and the junior name declared a nomen protectum . This rule exists primarily to prevent the confusion that would result if a well-known name, with a large accompanying body of literature, were to be replaced by a completely unfamiliar name. An example is the European land snail Petasina edentula ( Draparnaud , 1805). In 2002, researchers found that an older name Helix depilata Draparnaud, 1801 referred to
204-486: A macrobiotic diet that often includes large amounts of seaweed may be at greater risk. Zou, Hui-xi; Pang, Qiu-Ying; Zhang, Ai-Qin (January 2015). "Excess copper induced proteomic changes in the marine brown algae Sargassum fusiforme". Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety (2015) . 111 : 271–280. Bibcode : 2015EcoES.111..271Z . doi : 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.10.028 . PMID 25450944 . Synonym (taxonomy) Unlike synonyms in other contexts, in taxonomy
272-442: A microwave oven for 2–3 minutes before grilling shortens the time on the hot pan, and removes heterocyclic amine (HCA) precursors, which can help minimize the formation of these carcinogens. Frying, grilling or broiling food at high temperatures, especially starchy foods, until a toasted crust is formed generates acrylamides . This discovery in 2002 led to international health concerns. Subsequent research has however found that it
340-485: A cell's normal processes for regulating growth, leading to uncontrolled cellular proliferation. This occurs when the cell's DNA repair processes fail to identify DNA damage allowing the defect to be passed down to daughter cells . The damage accumulates over time. This is typically a multi-step process during which the regulatory mechanisms within the cell are gradually dismantled allowing for unchecked cellular division . The specific mechanisms for carcinogenic activity
408-466: A few. CERCLA identifies all radionuclides as carcinogens, although the nature of the emitted radiation ( alpha , beta , gamma , or neutron and the radioactive strength), its consequent capacity to cause ionization in tissues, and the magnitude of radiation exposure, determine the potential hazard. Carcinogenicity of radiation depends on the type of radiation, type of exposure, and penetration. For example, alpha radiation has low penetration and
476-482: A high incidence of colon cancer. Dietary increases in total fat or saturated fat result in elevated DCA and LCA in feces and elevated exposure of the colon epithelium to these bile acids. When the bile acid DCA was added to the standard diet of wild-type mice invasive colon cancer was induced in 56% of the mice after 8 to 10 months. Overall, the available evidence indicates that DCA and LCA are centrally important DNA-damaging carcinogens in colon cancer. Stomach cancer
544-437: A junior subjective synonym. Objective synonyms are common at the rank of genera, because for various reasons two genera may contain the same type species; these are objective synonyms. In many cases researchers established new generic names because they thought this was necessary or did not know that others had previously established another genus for the same group of species. An example is the genus Pomatia Beck, 1837, which
612-428: A listing of "synonyms", a "synonymy", often contains designations that for some reason did not make it as a formal name, such as manuscript names, or even misidentifications (although it is now the usual practice to list misidentifications separately ). Although the basic principles are fairly similar, the treatment of synonyms in botanical nomenclature differs in detail and terminology from zoological nomenclature, where
680-488: A major source of carcinogens with an estimated 666,000 annual fatalities worldwide attributable to work related cancers. According to NIOSH , 3-6% of cancers worldwide are due to occupational exposures. Well established occupational carcinogens include vinyl chloride and hemangiosarcoma of the liver, benzene and leukemia , aniline dyes and bladder cancer , asbestos and mesothelioma , polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and scrotal cancer among chimney sweeps to name
748-440: A species is moved to a different genus, a variety is moved to a different species, etc. Synonyms also come about when the codes of nomenclature change, so that older names are no longer acceptable; for example, Erica herbacea L. has been rejected in favour of Erica carnea L. and is thus its synonym. To the general user of scientific names, in fields such as agriculture, horticulture, ecology, general science, etc.,
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#1732794482177816-434: A species, or simple ignorance about an earlier description, may lead a biologist to describe a newly discovered specimen as a new species. A common reason for objective synonyms at this level is the creation of a replacement name. A junior synonym can be given precedence over a senior synonym, primarily when the senior name has not been used since 1899, and the junior name is in common use. The older name may be declared to be
884-418: A synonym is a name that was previously used as the correct scientific name (in handbooks and similar sources) but which has been displaced by another scientific name, which is now regarded as correct. Thus Oxford Dictionaries Online defines the term as "a taxonomic name which has the same application as another, especially one which has been superseded and is no longer valid". In handbooks and general texts, it
952-418: A synonym is not interchangeable with the name of which it is a synonym. In taxonomy, synonyms are not equals, but have a different status. For any taxon with a particular circumscription , position, and rank, only one scientific name is considered to be the correct one at any given time (this correct name is to be determined by applying the relevant code of nomenclature ). A synonym cannot exist in isolation: it
1020-481: A taxon, some of this (including species descriptions, distribution, ecology and more) may well have been published under names now regarded as outdated (i.e., synonyms) and so it is again useful to know a list of historic synonyms which may have been used for a given current (valid) taxon name. Objective synonyms refer to taxa with the same type and same rank (more or less the same taxon, although circumscription may vary, even widely). This may be species-group taxa of
1088-645: A wider assessment of the occupational hazards of chemicals. The European Union classification of carcinogens is contained in the Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008. It consists of three categories: The former European Union classification of carcinogens was contained in the Dangerous Substances Directive and the Dangerous Preparations Directive . It also consisted of three categories: This assessment scheme
1156-400: A wrap, to prepare sushi . Konjac is typically prepared with hijiki mixed in to give the dish known by the same name its characteristic grey color and texture. In Korea , the seaweed is called tot ( 톳 ) and eaten as namul (seasoned vegetable side dish) or cooked with bap (rice). Hijiki contains dietary fiber and minerals such as iron, calcium , and magnesium . Dietary fiber
1224-605: Is carcinogenic, if received in sufficient doses. For most people, ultraviolet radiations from sunlight is the most common cause of skin cancer. In Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight, melanoma is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years. Substances or foods irradiated with electrons or electromagnetic radiation (such as microwave, X-ray or gamma) are not carcinogenic. In contrast, non-electromagnetic neutron radiation produced inside nuclear reactors can produce secondary radiation through nuclear transmutation . Alcohol
1292-412: Is a United Nations initiative to attempt to harmonize the different systems of assessing chemical risk which currently exist (as of March 2009) around the world. It classifies carcinogens into two categories, of which the first may be divided again into subcategories if so desired by the competent regulatory authority: The National Toxicology Program of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
1360-746: Is a carcinogen of the head and neck, esophagus, liver, colon and rectum, and breast. It has a synergistic effect with tobacco smoke in the development of head and neck cancers. In the United States approximately 6% of cancers and 4% of cancer deaths are attributable to alcohol use. Chemicals used in processed and cured meat such as some brands of bacon, sausages and ham may produce carcinogens. For example, nitrites used as food preservatives in cured meat such as bacon have also been noted as being carcinogenic with demographic links, but not causation, to colon cancer. Cooking food at high temperatures, for example grilling or barbecuing meats, may also lead to
1428-764: Is a complex mixture of more than 5,300 identified chemicals. The most important carcinogens in tobacco smoke have been determined by a "Margin of Exposure" approach. Using this approach, the most important tumorigenic compounds in tobacco smoke were, in order of importance, acrolein , formaldehyde , acrylonitrile , 1,3-butadiene, cadmium, acetaldehyde, ethylene oxide, and isoprene. Most of these compounds cause DNA damage by forming DNA adducts or by inducing other alterations in DNA. DNA damages are subject to error-prone DNA repair or can cause replication errors. Such errors in repair or replication can result in mutations in tumor suppressor genes or oncogenes leading to cancer. Breast cancer
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#17327944821771496-493: Is always an alternative to a different scientific name. Given that the correct name of a taxon depends on the taxonomic viewpoint used (resulting in a particular circumscription, position and rank) a name that is one taxonomist's synonym may be another taxonomist's correct name (and vice versa ). Synonyms may arise whenever the same taxon is described and named more than once, independently. They may also arise when existing taxa are changed, as when two taxa are joined to become one,
1564-707: Is an intergovernmental agency established in 1965, which forms part of the World Health Organization of the United Nations . It is based in Lyon , France . Since 1971 it has published a series of Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans that have been highly influential in the classification of possible carcinogens. The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS)
1632-685: Is being phased out in favor of the GHS scheme (see above), to which it is very close in category definitions. Under a previous name, the NOHSC, in 1999 Safe Work Australia published the Approved Criteria for Classifying Hazardous Substances [NOHSC:1008(1999)]. Section 4.76 of this document outlines the criteria for classifying carcinogens as approved by the Australian government. This classification consists of three categories: In this section,
1700-535: Is connected to regular consumption of small amounts. Hijiki has been sold in United Kingdom natural products stores for 30 years and its culinary uses have been adopted in North America . Recent studies have shown that hijiki contains potentially toxic quantities of inorganic arsenic , and the food safety agencies of several countries (excluding Japan), including Canada , the United Kingdom , and
1768-405: Is first soaked in water then cooked with ingredients like soy sauce and sugar to make a dish that goes by the same name. In Japan , hijiki is normally eaten with other foods such as vegetables or fish. It may be added to foods that have been steamed, boiled, marinated in soy sauce or fish sauce, cooked in oil, or added to soup, stir fries or quiches. Hijiki may be mixed with rice, but not used as
1836-462: Is good for the intestine and iron helps to prevent anemia . The ratio of calcium to magnesium in hijiki is 2 to 1. Several government food safety agencies advise consumers to avoid consumption of hijiki seaweed. Testing showed that it contains significantly higher concentrations of inorganic arsenic than other types of seaweed, and these results have been independently verified. Government food safety agencies that advise against consumption include
1904-738: Is known to cause stomach cancer and MALT lymphoma . Hepatitis B and C are associated with the development of hepatocellular cancer. HPV is the primary cause of cervical cancer . Tobacco smoke contains at least 70 known carcinogens and is implicated in the development of numerous types of cancers including cancers of the lung, larynx, esophagus, stomach, kidney, pancreas, liver, bladder, cervix, colon, rectum and blood. Potent carcinogens found in cigarette smoke include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH, such as benzo(a)pyrene), benzene , and nitrosamine . Given that populations of workers are more likely to have consistent, often high level exposures to chemicals rarely encountered in normal life, much of
1972-446: Is mandated to produce a biennial Report on Carcinogens . As of August 2024, the latest edition was the 15th report (2021). It classifies carcinogens into two groups: The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) is a private organization best known for its publication of threshold limit values (TLVs) for occupational exposure and monographs on workplace chemical hazards. It assesses carcinogenicity as part of
2040-651: Is not a hazard outside the body, but emitters are carcinogenic when inhaled or ingested. For example, Thorotrast , a (incidentally radioactive) suspension previously used as a contrast medium in x-ray diagnostics, is a potent human carcinogen known because of its retention within various organs and persistent emission of alpha particles. Low-level ionizing radiation may induce irreparable DNA damage (leading to replicational and transcriptional errors needed for neoplasia or may trigger viral interactions) leading to pre-mature aging and cancer . Not all types of electromagnetic radiation are carcinogenic. Low-energy waves on
2108-410: Is not correct for the circumscription , position, and rank of the taxon as considered in the particular botanical publication. It is always "a synonym of the correct scientific name", but which name is correct depends on the taxonomic opinion of the author. In botany the various kinds of synonyms are: In botany, although a synonym must be a formally accepted scientific name (a validly published name):
Hijiki - Misplaced Pages Continue
2176-429: Is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food cause cancer in humans; Cancer Research UK categorizes the idea that burnt food causes cancer as a "myth". Several biologic agents are known carcinogens. Aflatoxin B 1 , a toxin produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus which is a common contaminant of stored grains and nuts is a known cause of hepatocellular cancer . The bacteria H. Pylori
2244-668: Is often expanded in taxonomic literature to include pro parte (or "for part") synonyms. These are caused by splits and circumscriptional changes. They are usually indicated by the abbreviation "p.p." For example: Carcinogen A carcinogen ( / k ɑːr ˈ s ɪ n ə dʒ ən / ) is any agent that promotes the development of cancer . Carcinogens can include synthetic chemicals , naturally occurring substances, physical agents such as ionizing and non-ionizing radiation , and biologic agents such as viruses and bacteria . Most carcinogens act by creating mutations in DNA that disrupt
2312-426: Is the fourth most common cancer [990,000 cases (7.8%), 738,000 deaths (9.7%)]. Helicobacter pylori infection is the main causative factor in stomach cancer. Chronic gastritis (inflammation) caused by H. pylori is often long-standing if not treated. Infection of gastric epithelial cells with H. pylori results in increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS cause oxidative DNA damage including
2380-649: Is the most common cancer in the world, both in terms of cases (1.6 million cases; 12.7% of total cancer cases) and deaths (1.4 million deaths; 18.2% of total cancer deaths). Lung cancer is largely caused by tobacco smoke. Risk estimates for lung cancer in the United States indicate that tobacco smoke is responsible for 90% of lung cancers. Other factors are implicated in lung cancer, and these factors can interact synergistically with smoking so that total attributable risk adds up to more than 100%. These factors include occupational exposure to carcinogens (about 9-15%), radon (10%) and outdoor air pollution (1-2%). Tobacco smoke
2448-406: Is the second most common cancer [(1.4 million cases, 10.9%), but ranks 5th as cause of death (458,000, 6.1%)]. Increased risk of breast cancer is associated with persistently elevated blood levels of estrogen . Estrogen appears to contribute to breast carcinogenesis by three processes; (1) the metabolism of estrogen to genotoxic, mutagenic carcinogens, (2) the stimulation of tissue growth, and (3)
2516-834: Is unique to each agent and cell type. Carcinogens can be broadly categorized, however, as activation-dependent and activation-independent which relate to the agent's ability to engage directly with DNA. Activation-dependent agents are relatively inert in their original form, but are bioactivated in the body into metabolites or intermediaries capable of damaging human DNA. These are also known as "indirect-acting" carcinogens. Examples of activation-dependent carcinogens include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heterocyclic aromatic amines , and mycotoxins . Activation-independent carcinogens, or "direct-acting" carcinogens, are those that are capable of directly damaging DNA without any modification to their molecular structure. These agents typically include electrophilic groups that react readily with
2584-411: Is useful to have synonyms mentioned as such after the current scientific name, so as to avoid confusion. For example, if the much-advertised name change should go through and the scientific name of the fruit fly were changed to Sophophora melanogaster , it would be very helpful if any mention of this name was accompanied by "(syn. Drosophila melanogaster )". Synonyms used in this way may not always meet
2652-727: The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA), the Food Standards Agency (FSA) of the United Kingdom, and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan responded with a report pointing out that while the consumption of more than 4.7 g hijiki seaweed per day could result in an intake of inorganic arsenic that exceeds the tolerable daily intake for this substance,
2720-490: The United States , have advised against its consumption. In 1867 the word "hijiki" first appeared in an English-language publication: A Japanese and English Dictionary by James C. Hepburn . Starting in the 1960s, the word "hijiki" started to be used widely in the United States, and the product (imported in dried form from Japan) became widely available at natural food stores and Asian-American grocery stores, due to
2788-522: The electromagnetic spectrum including radio waves , microwaves , infrared radiation and visible light are thought not to be, because they have insufficient energy to break chemical bonds. Evidence for carcinogenic effects of non-ionizing radiation is generally inconclusive , though there are some documented cases of radar technicians with prolonged high exposure experiencing significantly higher cancer incidence. Higher-energy radiation, including ultraviolet radiation (present in sunlight ) generally
Hijiki - Misplaced Pages Continue
2856-488: The authors have inspected the original material; a . that they take on the responsibility for the act of synonymizing the taxa. The accurate use of scientific names, including synonyms, is crucial in biomedical and pharmacological research involving plants. Failure to use correct botanical nomenclature can lead to ambiguity, hinder reproducibility of results, and potentially cause errors in medicine. Best practices for publication suggest that researchers should provide
2924-552: The average daily consumption for Japanese people is estimated at 0.9 g. Several of the reports from other food safety agencies acknowledged that occasional hijiki consumption was unlikely to cause significant health risks but advised against all consumption regardless. Although no known illnesses have been associated with consuming hijiki seaweed to date, inorganic arsenic has been identified as carcinogenic to humans. Exposure to inorganic arsenic has been linked with gastrointestinal effects, anemia , and liver damage. People who follow
2992-419: The beginning of § Zoology . The two are related, with only one word difference between their names.) For example, the scientific name of the red imported fire ant , Solenopsis invicta was published by Buren in 1972, who did not know that this species was first named Solenopsis saevissima wagneri by Santschi in 1916; as there were thousands of publications using the name invicta before anyone discovered
3060-729: The bile acids deoxycholic acid (DCA) or lithocholic acid (LCA) induce production of DNA-damaging reactive oxygen species or reactive nitrogen species in human or animal colon cells. Furthermore, 14 studies showed that DCA and LCA induce DNA damage in colon cells. Also 27 studies reported that bile acids cause programmed cell death ( apoptosis ). Increased apoptosis can result in selective survival of cells that are resistant to induction of apoptosis. Colon cells with reduced ability to undergo apoptosis in response to DNA damage would tend to accumulate mutations, and such cells may give rise to colon cancer. Epidemiologic studies have found that fecal bile acid concentrations are increased in populations with
3128-750: The carcinogenicity of substances include the National Toxicology Program of the US Public Health Service , NIOSH , the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists and others. There are numerous sources of exposures to carcinogens including ultraviolet radiation from the sun, radon gas emitted in residential basements, environmental contaminants such as chlordecone , cigarette smoke and ingestion of some types of foods such as alcohol and processed meats . Occupational exposures represent
3196-422: The carcinogens implicated as the main causative agents of the four most common cancers worldwide are briefly described. These four cancers are lung, breast, colon, and stomach cancers. Together they account for about 41% of worldwide cancer incidence and 42% of cancer deaths (for more detailed information on the carcinogens implicated in these and other cancers, see references ). Lung cancer (pulmonary carcinoma)
3264-421: The correct name is included among synonyms, although as first among equals it is the "senior synonym": Scientific papers may include lists of taxa, synonymizing existing taxa and (in some cases) listing references to them. The status of a synonym may be indicated by symbols, as for instance in a system proposed for use in paleontology by Rudolf Richter. In that system a v before the year would indicate that
3332-654: The cumulative scientific evidence regarding the potential carcinogenicity of specific substances. Foremost among these is the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). IARC routinely publishes monographs in which specific substances are evaluated for their potential carcinogenicity to humans and subsequently categorized into one of four groupings: Group 1: Carcinogenic to humans, Group 2A: Probably carcinogenic to humans, Group 2B: Possibly carcinogenic to humans and Group 3: Not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. Other organizations that evaluate
3400-649: The currently accepted binomial with author citation, relevant synonyms, and the accepted family name according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III classification. This practice ensures clear communication, allows proper linking of research to existing literature, and provides insight into phylogenetic relationships that may be relevant to shared chemical constituents or physiological effects. Online databases now make it easy for researchers to access correct nomenclature and synonymy information for plant species. The traditional concept of synonymy
3468-737: The evidence for the carcinogenicity of specific agents is derived from studies of workers. Selected carcinogens Not in widespread use, but found in: circadian disruption Carcinogens can be classified as genotoxic or nongenotoxic. Genotoxins cause irreversible genetic damage or mutations by binding to DNA . Genotoxins include chemical agents like N-nitroso-N-methylurea (NMU) or non-chemical agents such as ultraviolet light and ionizing radiation . Certain viruses can also act as carcinogens by interacting with DNA. Nongenotoxins do not directly affect DNA but act in other ways to promote growth. These include hormones and some organic compounds. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)
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#17327944821773536-438: The formation of minute quantities of many potent carcinogens that are comparable to those found in cigarette smoke (i.e., benzo[ a ]pyrene ). Charring of food looks like coking and tobacco pyrolysis , and produces carcinogens. There are several carcinogenic pyrolysis products, such as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, which are converted by human enzymes into epoxides , which attach permanently to DNA. Pre-cooking meats in
3604-558: The incidence of DNA damage and breast cancer risk. Consumption of alcohol has also been linked to an increased risk for breast cancer. Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer [1.2 million cases (9.4%), 608,000 deaths (8.0%)]. Tobacco smoke may be responsible for up to 20% of colorectal cancers in the United States. In addition, substantial evidence implicates bile acids as an important factor in colon cancer. Twelve studies (summarized in Bernstein et al. ) indicate that
3672-465: The influence of the macrobiotic movement, and in the 1970s with the growing number of Japanese restaurants. Hijiki is green to brown in colour when found in the wild. Fishermen and professional divers harvest the hijiki with a sickle at low tide during the spring tide from May to March. After collection, the seaweed is boiled and dried before being sold as dried hijiki. Once processed, dried hijiki turns black. To prepare dried hijiki for cooking, it
3740-401: The junior synonym. (Incidentally, this species has since been reclassified and currently resides in the genus Bubo , as Bubo scandiacus ). One basic principle of zoological nomenclature is that the earliest correctly published (and thus available ) name, the senior synonym, by default takes precedence in naming rights and therefore, unless other restrictions interfere, must be used for
3808-418: The major base alteration 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG). 8-OHdG resulting from ROS is increased in chronic gastritis. The altered DNA base can cause errors during DNA replication that have mutagenic and carcinogenic potential. Thus H. pylori -induced ROS appear to be the major carcinogens in stomach cancer because they cause oxidative DNA damage leading to carcinogenic mutations. Diet is also thought to be
3876-569: The net negative charge of DNA molecules. Examples of activation-independent carcinogens include ultraviolet light , ionizing radiation and alkylating agents . The time from exposure to a carcinogen to the development of cancer is known as the latency period . For most solid tumors in humans the latency period is between 10 and 40 years depending on cancer type. For blood cancers, the latency period may be as short as two. Due to prolonged latency periods identification of carcinogens can be challenging. A number of organizations review and evaluate
3944-690: The repression of phase II detoxification enzymes that metabolize ROS leading to increased oxidative DNA damage. The major estrogen in humans, estradiol , can be metabolized to quinone derivatives that form adducts with DNA. These derivatives can cause depurination, the removal of bases from the phosphodiester backbone of DNA, followed by inaccurate repair or replication of the apurinic site leading to mutation and eventually cancer. This genotoxic mechanism may interact in synergy with estrogen receptor-mediated, persistent cell proliferation to ultimately cause breast cancer. Genetic background, dietary practices and environmental factors also likely contribute to
4012-536: The rules of nomenclature; as for example when an older name is (re)discovered which has priority over the current name. Speaking in general, name changes for nomenclatural reasons have become less frequent over time as the rules of nomenclature allow for names to be conserved, so as to promote stability of scientific names. In zoological nomenclature, codified in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , synonyms are different scientific names of
4080-408: The same taxonomic rank that pertain to that same taxon . For example, a particular species could, over time, have had two or more species-rank names published for it, while the same is applicable at higher ranks such as genera, families, orders, etc. In each case, the earliest published name is called the senior synonym , while the later name is the junior synonym . In the case where two names for
4148-409: The same rank with the same type specimen , genus-group taxa of the same rank with the same type species or if their type species are themselves objective synonyms, of family-group taxa with the same type genus, etc. In the case of subjective synonyms , there is no such shared type, so the synonymy is open to taxonomic judgement, meaning that there is room for debate: one researcher might consider
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#17327944821774216-534: The same species, but this name had never been used after 1899 and was fixed as a nomen oblitum under this rule by Falkner et al. 2002. Such a reversal of precedence is also possible if the senior synonym was established after 1900, but only if the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) approves an application. (Here the C in ICZN stands for Commission, not Code as it does at
4284-407: The same taxon have been published simultaneously, the valid name is selected accorded to the principle of the first reviser such that, for example, of the names Strix scandiaca and Strix noctua (Aves), both published by Linnaeus in the same work at the same date for the taxon now determined to be the snowy owl , the epithet scandiaca has been selected as the valid name, with noctua becoming
4352-493: The strict definitions of the term "synonym" in the formal rules of nomenclature which govern scientific names (see below) . Changes of scientific name have two causes: they may be taxonomic or nomenclatural. A name change may be caused by changes in the circumscription, position or rank of a taxon, representing a change in taxonomic, scientific insight (as would be the case for the fruit fly, mentioned above). A name change may be due to purely nomenclatural reasons, that is, based on
4420-401: The synonymy, the ICZN, in 2001, ruled that invicta would be given precedence over wagneri . To qualify as a synonym in zoology, a name must be properly published in accordance with the rules. Manuscript names and names that were mentioned without any description ( nomina nuda ) are not considered as synonyms in zoological nomenclature. In botanical nomenclature , a synonym is a name that
4488-406: The taxon. However, junior synonyms are still important to document, because if the earliest name cannot be used (for example, because the same spelling had previously been used for a name established for another taxon), then the next available junior synonym must be used for the taxon. For other purposes, if a researcher is interested in consulting or compiling all currently known information regarding
4556-479: The two (or more) types to refer to one and the same taxon, another might consider them to belong to different taxa. For example, John Edward Gray published the name Antilocapra anteflexa in 1855 for a species of pronghorn , based on a pair of horns. However, it is now commonly accepted that his specimen was an unusual individual of the species Antilocapra americana published by George Ord in 1815. Ord's name thus takes precedence, with Antilocapra anteflexa being
4624-545: Was established for a group of terrestrial snails containing as its type species the Burgundy or Roman snail Helix pomatia —since Helix pomatia was already the type species for the genus Helix Linnaeus, 1758, the genus Pomatia was an objective synonym (and useless). On the same occasion, Helix is also a synonym of Pomatia , but it is older and so it has precedence. At the species level, subjective synonyms are common because of an unexpectedly large range of variation in
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